Order Code IB98046
Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Nigeria in Political Transition
Updated March 4, 2003
Theodros Dagne
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Historical and Political Background
Transition to Civilian Rule
Elections
The 2003 Elections
Current Economic and Social Conditions
Chronology of Recent Events
Issues in U.S.-Nigerian Relations
Background
The United States and the Obasanjo Government
CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS, REPORTS, AND DOCUMENTS
FOR ADDITIONAL READING


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Nigeria in Political Transition
SUMMARY
On June 8, 1998, General Sani Abacha,
in U.S. assistance to Nigeria. In August 2000,
the military leader who took power in Nigeria
President Clinton paid a state visit to Nigeria.
in 1993, died of a reported heart attack and
He met with President Obasanjo in Abuja and
was replaced by General Abdulsalam
addressed the Nigerian parliament. Several
Abubakar. On July 7, 1998, Moshood Abiola,
new U.S. initiatives were announced, includ-
the believed winner of the 1993 presidential
ing increased support for AIDS prevention
election, also died of a heart attack during a
and treatment programs in Nigeria and en-
meeting with U.S. officials. General Abubakar
hanced trade and commercial development.
released political prisoners and initiated politi-
cal, economic, and social reforms. He also
In May 2001, President Obasanjo met
established a new independent electoral com-
with President Bush and other senior officials
mission and outlined a schedule for elections
in Washington. The two presidents discussed
and transition to civilian rule, pledging to
a wide range of issues, including trade, peace-
hand over power to an elected civilian govern-
keeping, and the HIV/AIDS crisis in Africa.
ment by May 1999.
President Bush pledged $200 million into a
new global fund for HIV/AIDS. In fiscal year
In late February 1999, former military
2001, Nigeria received $77.7 million in eco-
leader General Olusegun Obasanjo was elect-
nomic and development assistance. The Bush
ed president and was sworn in on May 29,
Administration has requested $66.2 million
1999. Obasanjo won 62.8% of the votes (18.7
for FY2003. In early November 2001, Presi-
million), while his challenger, Chief Olu Falae
dent Obasanjo paid a visit to Washington to
received 37.2% of the votes (11.1 million). In
express his government’s support for the U.S.-
the Senate elections, the People’s Democratic
led anti-terrorism campaign. In June 2002,
Party (PDP) won 58% of the votes, the All
President Obasanjo paid a short visit to Wash-
People’s Party (APP) 23%, and the Alliance
ington, his second visit in less than a year.
for Democracy (AD) 19%. In the elections for
the House of Representatives, PDP received
Nigeria continues to make progress in
59% of the votes, AD 22%, and APP 20%.
strengthening its fragile democracy but faces
serious economic challenges. With a populat-
The international community welcomed
ion of over 126 million, Nigeria remains
the election of Obasanjo. The European Union
relatively stable, although ethnic and religious
restored full cooperation with Nigeria and
clashes in some parts of the country have led
lifted sanctions that were imposed to punish
to massive displacement of civilian popula-
the Abacha government. The Commonwealth
tions. Thousands of civilians have been killed
moved swiftly and readmitted Nigeria as a
over the past several years and many more
member, after 3 years of suspension.
wounded in religious clashes. In late Decem-
ber 2002, the Nigerian Independent National
Relations between the United States and
Electoral Commission (INEC) announced that
Nigeria improved with the transfer of power
elections for president and state governors
to a civilian government. In late October 1999,
would be held on April 19, 2003. Parliamen-
President Obasanjo met with President Clint-
tary elections are scheduled for April 12,
on and other senior officials in Washington.
while elections for regional assemblies are set
President Clinton pledged substantial increase
for May 3, 2003.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
In early March 2003, more than 100 people, including ten police officers, were killed
in ethnic clashes in Adamawa State. In November 2002, dozens of people were killed in
similar fighting in the same area. Tens of thousands of civilians have been killed in ethnic
and religious violence over the past several years. Moreover, a bomb explosion in central
Lagos killed 40 people in early February 2003. The government of Nigeria blamed the attack
on criminals and has arrested 8 people.
In mid-February 2003, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) sent a team to
investigate and locate missing radioactive material, after the Nigerian government requested
assistance. According to press reports, one of the missing radioactive material is beryllium,
a cancer-causing radioactive material used by the oil industry. As of early March 2003, the
IAEA has not been able to locate the missing material.
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Historical and Political Background
Nigeria, the most populous nation in Africa with an estimated 107 million people, has
been in political turmoil and economic crisis intermittently since independence in October
1960. The current borders were demarcated by British colonial rulers in 1914, on the eve of
World War I, by merging the British dependencies of Northern and Southern Nigeria into a
single territory with promising economic prospects. The new Nigeria, as defined by the
British, placed over 250 distinct ethnic groups under a single administrative system. Of this
large number of groups, ten account for nearly 80% of the total population, and the northern
Hausa-Fulani, the southwestern Yoruba, and the southeastern Ibo, have traditionally been the
most politically active and dominant. Since gaining independence from Britain in 1960,
Nigerian political life has been scarred by conflict along both ethnic and geographic lines,
marked most notably by northern and Hausa domination of the military and the Biafran
secession movement and civil war fought by the Ibo from 1967 to 1970. Questions persist
as to whether or not Nigeria and its multitude of ethnic groups can be held together as one
nation, particularly in light of the degree to which misrule has undermined the authority and
legitimacy of the state apparatus; but many Nigerians feel a significant degree of national
pride and belief in Nigeria as a state.
Nigeria’s political life has been dominated by military coups and long military-imposed
transition programs to civilian rule. The military has ruled Nigeria for approximately 28 of
its 41 years since independence. In August 1985, General Ibrahim Babangida ousted another
military ruler, General Muhammadu Buhari, and imposed a transition program that lasted
until June 1993, when Nigeria held its first election in almost a decade, believed to be won
by Chief Moshood K. O. Abiola, a Yoruba businessman from the south. In the same month,
General Babangida annulled the presidential election because of what he called “irregularities
in the voting” and ordered a new election with conditions that Abiola and his challenger be
excluded from participating. Amid confusion and growing political unrest Babangida
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handed over power to a caretaker government in August 1993, then ousted the caretaker the
following November.
General Sani Abacha took power in November 1993. Abacha had been an active
participant in several Nigerian military coups and was an authoritarian figure who seemed
unmoved by international opinion. Beginning in 1995, Abacha imprisoned hundreds of
critics, including former military leader Olusegun Obasanjo, the only Nigerian military leader
to have handed over power voluntarily to an elected civilian government, and Moshood
Abiola, who was charged with treason after declaring himself president following the
annulled election. The senior wife of Abiola, Kudirat Abiola, was assassinated in June 1996
by unidentified men. Her daughter blamed the military junta.
In October 1995, under pressure to implement political reforms, Abacha announced a
3-year transition program to civilian rule, which he tightly controlled until his death on June
8, 1998. Abacha established the National Electoral Commission of Nigeria (NECON),
which published guidelines for party registration, recognized five political parties in
September 1996 and officially dissolved opposition groups after refusing to recognize them.
The military professed its support for Abacha should he seek reelection as a civilian, and by
April 20, 1998, all five parties had nominated Abacha as the single presidential candidate
despite pressure by the international community and dissident groups. Major opposition
figures, especially those in exile, dismissed the transition program and called for boycotts of
the parliamentary and presidential elections. Only candidates from among the five state-
sanctioned political parties participated in state assembly elections held in December 1997
and parliamentary elections held on April 25, 1998. The United Nigeria Congress Party
(UNCP), considered by many government opponents to be the army’s proxy, won
widespread victories.
Transition to Civilian Rule
Abacha died, reportedly of a heart attack, on June 8, 1998. The Provisional Ruling
Council quickly nominated Major General Abdulsalam Abubakar to assume the presidency.
General Abubakar, a career serviceman from the Northern Hausa-speaking elite, was
regarded as a military intellectual. He served as chief of military intelligence under General
Ibrahim Babangida and was Abacha’s chief of staff. He led the investigations of reported
coup attempts by former President Olusegun Obasanjo and Lt. General Oladipo Diya,
charges that, critics argue, were fabricated by the government. Following Abacha’s death,
General Abubakar addressed the nation and expressed his commitment to uphold the October
1998 hand-over date to civilian government established by Abacha. In an effort to prove his
commitment, Abubakar released several prominent political prisoners, including General
Olusegun Obasanjo.
Immediately following Abacha’s death, pro-democracy leaders demanded that Abiola
be released from prison and be declared the legitimate ruler of Nigeria. To mark the fifth
anniversary of the annulled elections, many dissidents protested and demanded the release
of Abiola in spite of a ban on demonstrations by the government. Reports of secret talks
between top government officials and Abiola led many observers to believe that the
government intended to release Abiola on the condition that he renounce his claim to the
presidency. Government officials granted U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan an audience
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with Abiola in which Annan reportedly attempted to persuade Abiola to give up his title in
order to earn immediate release. Annan reported that Abiola had agreed to renounce his title
and cooperate with the transition program, and the government promised to release all
political prisoners, including Abiola. However, a letter reportedly written by Abiola and
published after his death called into question the accuracy of Annan’s report. According to
Abiola, Annan behaved like a “Nigerian diplomat” who wanted him to relinquish the title
for which he and his supporters had fought over the past 5 years.
During a meeting with a U.S. delegation
Nigeria At A Glance
led by Undersecretary of State Thomas
Pickering on July 7, 1998, Abiola suffered a
Population: 126.6 million
Independence: October 1960
heart attack and died soon after. Pro-
Comparative Area: Slightly more than twice the
democracy leaders immediately claimed that
size of California
Abiola was murdered. The autopsy report,
Religions: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10%
Indigenous beliefs
monitored by an independent team of
Languages: English (official)
Canadian, American, and British doctors,
GDP: $117 billion (2000)
confirmed that Abiola died of natural causes
GDP Per Capita: $950 (2000)
Unemployment rate: 28% (1992)
due to a long-standing heart condition and that
Exports: $22.2 billion (1999)
death as a result of poisoning was highly
Imports: $10.7 billion (1999)
unlikely. Many observers said, however, that
External Debt: $32 billion (1999)
Abiola’s care was deliberately neglected,
Source: The World Fact book, 2001
resulting in his early demise. His death
crushed the hopes of many democracy
supporters and spurred riots for several days.
Abubakar replaced several of Abacha’s top advisors in the military hierarchy with men
of his own choosing, and began to establish a framework for the transition to civilian rule.
On July 20, 1998, General Abubakar stated that the October 1998 hand-over date established
by Abacha was unrealistic in light of the disruption caused by his death. He announced in
a public speech a series of political and economic reforms that his government would
implement before handing over power to an elected civilian government on the new official
date of May 29, 1999. In an early effort to demonstrate his government’s commitment to
reconciliation, General Abubakar announced the release of all political detainees and decided
to “withdraw all charges against political offenders.”
Although politicians and leading opposition figures generally welcomed the transition
program, many were disappointed that Abubakar rejected their call for a national unity
government. The leader of the National Democratic Coalition of Nigeria (NADECO), a
leading opposition group, proposed a sovereign conference to decide how the different
ethnic groups should be represented to draft a constitution for the nation as a whole, at which
point elections would be held. Abubakar rejected this suggestion, saying that it replaces one
unelected government with another, that the process would take too long, and that “such an
arrangement is full of pitfalls and dangers, which this administration cannot accept.”
In August and September, Abubakar undertook rapid and dramatic reforms to the
Nigerian political system and economy. He replaced Abacha’s top security staff and cabinet
and dissolved the five political parties that Abacha had established. He abolished major
decrees banning trade union activity, which had been used by Abacha to put down the
political strikes that followed the nullification of the 1993 election results and ended treason
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charges against Nobel Prize-winning writer Wole Soyinka and 14 others. Abubakar has also
made a concerted effort to appeal to Nigerians in exile to return home and assist in the
transition process, and many have done so, most notably Nobel Prize-winning author Wole
Soyinka in mid-October. Journalists reported that freedom of the press improved during
Abubakar’s tenure. On September 7, Abubakar released the draft constitution for the next
civilian government, which Abacha had kept secret, but announced on October 1 that he was
setting up a committee to organize and collate views from various sections of the country,
after which he would finalize changes to the draft document in order to make it “more
representative and acceptable.” In early May 1999, the government approved an updated
version of the 1979 Nigerian constitution instead of the constitution drafted by the Abacha
regime.
Abubakar outlined a specific timetable for the transition to civilian rule, with local polls
on December 5, 1998, gubernatorial and state polls on January 9, followed by national
assembly polls on February 20, 1999, and presidential polls on February 27. The official
hand-over date was set for May 29, 1999. He also nullified all of the previous state and
gubernatorial elections because they were held under the Abacha system, and dismissed the
National Electoral Commission established by Abacha, replacing it with one of his own, the
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), in early August. Political party
registration for elections ended after an extension on October 12, and the INEC released the
names of the nine registered parties on October 19. The three major parties were the
People’s Democratic Party (PDP), the All People’s Party (APP), and the Alliance for
Democracy (AD). In order to be registered, a party had to be considered “national,” defined
as having offices in at least two-thirds of the 36 states that make up Nigeria, and furthermore
must win at least 10% of votes in two-thirds of the states in the local elections in December
1998 in order to qualify a candidate for the national elections in February. Abubakar warned
of the dangers of a “proliferation of political parties with parochial orientation, that may lead
to disunity and instability,” while urging political leadership to represent the will of people
of all tribes and ethnicities.
Abubakar announced in a public speech on October 1 that the election commission had
already met delegates from the United Nations and the Commonwealth to discuss ways of
ensuring free and fair elections in February. Registration of an expected 60 million voters
began in early October 1998 and lasted until October 19. Despite television advertisements
taken out by the INEC and assurances that the lists of voters were checked and cross-checked
in order to prevent any faults or double registration, the process was reportedly marked by
fraud and controversy. INEC members cited unconfirmed reports that their officials were
being bribed to hand over piles of cards to representatives from political parties, in order to
improve their chances in the upcoming elections (BBC, October 14, 1998). These accounts
were in addition to complaints of shortages of cards in certain areas and that the registration
offices were not open at regular hours in certain states. Although the INEC had denied
responsibility, political parties and leaders accused the commission of poor preparation and
ineptitude.
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The international community
Highlights of Abubakar’s Transition Program
cautiously welcomed the transition
program. Donor governments in Europe
Rejected:
expressed support and urged transparency.
National Conference
National Unity Government
French, British, and German delegations
met with the Nigerian leadership in Abuja,
Accomplished:
the capital, in late July, and Abubakar has
Debt relief talks with World Bank and IMF
made numerous trips abroad in an effort to
Release of all political prisoners
Dissolution of old electoral commission and
improve relations with African and world
establishment of new Independent National Electoral
leaders. The European Union announced
Commission
in late October 1998 that, effective
Dissolution of old political parties and registration of
November 1, some sanctions would be
new parties
relaxed. The visa ban was officially
Voter registration
Annulment of elections under Abacha
removed and some officials indicated that
Most political prisoners freed
even the military measures might be lifted
Greater freedom of press, human rights better
after the official hand-over date in May.
Publicized and amended 1995 constitution
On May 31, 1999, the European Union
Dismissed Abacha officials and began investigation
into misappropriated funds
restored full economic cooperation with
Exiled dissidents returned home
Nigeria. In late May, the Commonwealth
Better-paid civil servants to combat corruption
also readmitted Nigeria as a member, after
Repairs started on refineries, more oil imported,
3 years of suspension.
privatization program started
Hand-over May 29, 1999
Presidential elections February 27, 1999
Elections
National assembly elections February 20, 1999
State/Gubernatorial elections January 9, 1999
In early December 1998, the PDP
Local elections December 5, 1998 Partial lifting of
won in 389 out of 774 municipalities in
international sanctions
local elections, while the All People’s
Party (APP) came a distant second with
182, followed by Alliance for Democracy. In the governorship elections in early January, the
PDP won 21 states out of 36, the APP won in nine states, and the AD won in six states.
Shortly after the elections in January, the APP and AD began talks to merge the two political
parties. However, the Independent Electoral Commission rejected a merger but agreed that
the two parties “can present common candidates” for the presidential elections.
In mid-February, the People Democratic Party nominated General Olusegun Obasanjo
as its presidential candidate. Obasanjo won the support of more than two-thirds of the 2,500
delegates and a northerner, Abubakar Atiku, who was elected governor in the January
elections, was chosen as his running mate. The APP and AD nominated Chief Olu Falae,
a Yoruba, as their joint candidate for president. A former Nigerian security chief and a
northerner, Chief Umaru Shinakfi, was chosen as Falae’s running mate.
In late February 1999, General Obasanjo was elected president by a wide margin.
Obasanjo won 62.8% of the votes (18.7 million), while his challenger, Chief Olu Falae
received 37.2% of the votes (11.1 million). In the Senate elections, the PDP won 58% of
the votes, APP 23%, and AD 19%. In the elections for the House of Representatives, PDP
received 59% of the votes, AD 22%, and APP 20%.
On May 29, 1999, Obasanjo was sworn in president and the Nigerian Senate approved
42 of 49 members of his cabinet. In his inaugural address, President Obasanjo said that “the
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entire Nigerian scene is very bleak indeed. So bleak people ask me where do we begin? I
know what great things you expect of me at this New Dawn. As I have said many times in
my extensive travels in the country, I am not a miracle worker. It will be foolish to underrate
the task ahead. Alone, I can do little.”
The 2003 Elections
In late December 2002, the Nigerian Independent National Electoral Commission
(INEC) announced that elections for president and state governors would be held on April
19, 2003. Parliamentary elections are scheduled for April 12, while elections for regional
assemblies are set for May 3, 2003. These elections are the first to be supervised by civilians
in more than two decades.
President Obasanjo was nominated by his party, the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP),
for a second-term bid. The All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) picked former military
strongman, General Muhammadu Buhari, as its presidential candidate. General Buhari is
considered Obasanjo’s formidable challenger. Meanwhile, the former Biafra rebel leader,
Emeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, who led the secessionist war in the 1960s, was picked as the
presidential candidate of the All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA). The National
Democratic Party (NDP) picked former foreign minister Ike Nwachukwu as its presidential
candidate
Current Economic and Social Conditions
Western officials believe that Sani Abacha may have stolen more than $3.5 billion over
the course of his 5 years in power. Abacha’s former national security adviser, Ismaila
Gwarzo, has been connected to the disappearance of $2.45 billion from the Nigerian Central
Bank. Due in large part to large-scale theft from the Nigerian Treasury, the education system
is collapsing, industry has idled, refineries are in poor conditions, and the sixth-largest oil-
producing country in the world suffers from severe fuel shortages. The Nigerian economy
depends heavily on oil revenues; about 20% of Nigeria’s GDP comes from petroleum and
petroleum products, which also represent 95% of its foreign exchange earnings and 65% of
its budgetary revenues (CIA World Factbook, 2001). The European Union is a major trading
partner, and the United States imports more oil from sub-Saharan Africa, primarily Nigeria,
than from the Middle East.
The state of the economy has most affected the poorest segments of the population and
has sparked violence around the country, particularly in the oil-producing regions. Several
thousand people have been killed in pipeline explosions in southeast Nigeria since July,
though the largest single toll from an explosion was approximately 1,000 in October of 1999.
These explosions result from the siphoning off of oil from holes punched in the above-
ground pipeline for personal use. Ethnic clashes over rights to a promising oil prospect in
the southwest also killed hundreds of people in September and October 1999. In the Niger
Delta, youths from the ethnic Ijaw tribe periodically stopped the flow of one-third of
Nigeria’s oil exports of more than two million barrels per day in order to protest sub-standard
living conditions in the country’s richest oil-producing region. The government established
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a national task force on surveillance of petroleum pipelines in order to prevent a recurrence
of the pipeline explosion tragedy.
As part of his reforms, Abubakar launched a long-promised privatization program, and
he also implemented measures to ease the fuel shortage, increasing the number of firms
importing oil and beginning repairs on state-owned refineries. Money owed to oil companies
was paid under Abubakar, and he gave contracts for new oil imports to established firms, not
presidential acquaintances. The pay for civil servants was also increased in an effort to lower
the high degree of corruption present in all levels of government, and Abubakar ordered open
bidding for all government contracts. Abubakar also recovered money stolen and
misappropriated during the Abacha regime. The Abacha family had reportedly surrendered
$750 million to the government and former national security adviser Ismaila Gwarzo turned
over more than $250 million. To recover funds, the military junta used quiet pressure rather
than the threat of imprisonment. Observers reported that Abubakar was concerned about
initiating too broad an inquiry, since an investigation could implicate almost the entire army
hierarchy and spark another coup (Associated Press, November 1, 1998).
Chronology of Recent Events
In late May 1999, General Obasanjo was sworn in as president of a new civilian
government. In his inaugural address, President Obasanjo said he is prepared to restore
confidence in government, deal with the growing economic crisis, and tackle corruption. In
late June, the Nigerian Senate approved 42 of the 49 cabinet members submitted for
confirmation by President Obasanjo.
In early June 1999, the Commonwealth readmitted Nigeria as member, after 3 years of
suspension. The European Union also restored full economic cooperation with Nigeria. In
July, a court in Abuja convicted the Speaker of the House of Representatives after he pleaded
guilty to perjury and forgery. The Speaker was forced to resign from Nigeria’s 469-member
national assembly after admitting that he lied about his age and educational qualifications.
In mid-August 1999, Energy Secretary Bill Richardson visited Nigeria and met with
senior government officials. In late September, the Associate Administrator of the Federal
Airports Administration (FAA), Admiral Cathal Flynn, visited Nigeria to discuss the status
of the Murtala Mohammed International Airport in Lagos. The United States subsequently
suspended flights to Lagos because of security concerns. On December 22, 1999, the
Department of Transportation removed the suspension after Nigeria met all safety
requirements.
In mid-October 1999, Secretary of State Albright visited Nigeria and met with senior
government officials and civil society groups. At a press briefing following her Africa tour,
Secretary Albright stated that the government and people of Nigeria are “engaged in a
dramatic and high-stakes struggle to establish a viable democratic system.” She said
President Obasanjo “appears truly committed to jump-starting the economy, fighting
corruption and resolving regional problems that remain a source of unrest within Nigeria.”
In late October 1999, President Obasanjo met with President Clinton and other senior
government officials in Washington. At a White House press briefing, President Clinton
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said that “it is very much in America’s interests that Nigeria succeed, and therefore we
should assist them in their success. We intend to increase our assistance to Nigeria to expand
law-enforcement cooperation and to work toward an agreement to stimulate trade and
investment between us. We intend to do what we can to help Nigeria recover assets
plundered by the previous regime.” President Clinton stated that the United States will
support “generous debt rescheduling through the Paris Club and encourage other countries
to take further steps.”
In late October, Nigeria’s Zamfara state introduced Islamic Sharia law. The introduction
of Sharia law has triggered sharp reaction from non-Muslims in other parts of Nigeria. In
early November, the Cross River state passed a non-binding resolution declaring the area a
Christian state in protest of Zamfara state’s action.
Between February and May 2000, more than 500 were killed in Kaduna in northern
Nigeria in violence triggered by the proposal to introduce Sharia by Muslims. Following
Zamfara State which began implementing Sharia in January 2000, the states of Niger and
Sokoto adopted Sharia in February. As of August 2000, several more states, including Kano,
Katsina, Jigawa, Yobe, and Borno have adopted Sharia. (Details available on the BBC News
Web site at [http://news.bbc.co.uk/low/english/world/africa/newsid_924000/924573.stm].)
Despite assurances by authorities in these states that Sharia would not apply on non-
Moslems, Christian groups complain about restrictions as a result of the new law. President
Obasanjo vowed to punish the perpetrators of the violence and assured Nigerians that the
security services would restore law and order. President Obasanjo stated in late August 2000
that the best way to respond to Sharia was to ignore it: “I think Sharia will fizzle out. To
confront it is to keep it alive.”
In late June, Nigeria and the United States established a new organization to promote
trade and investment. The U.S. and Nigeria Trade and Investment Council was inaugurated
in late June in the Nigerian capital, Abuja. According to U.S. Deputy Trade Representative
Susan Esserman, “the Council shall focus on removing impediments to trade, developing and
implementing concrete strategies to strengthen reforms and achieve economic diversification
and growth.” In February 2000, Nigeria and the United States signed a trade and investment
agreement in Washington.
In mid-May, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) decided to
send an estimated 3,000 troops to the war-torn west African country of Sierra Leone. Nigeria
was expected to contribute the majority of the 3,000 troops and take command of the West
African force in Sierra Leone.
Swiss officials said that about 120 accounts in Zurich and Geneva have been frozen. In
early April 2000, Swiss officials charged a businessman for falsifying documents to open a
bank account in Geneva for the Abacha family. According to the New York Times, the
unidentified businessman is Dharam Vir of New Delhi, India. In mid-May, 2000, President
Obasanjo announced that his government has recovered $200 million public funds looted by
former Nigerian dictator Abacha and his associates. In July, Nigerian authorities announced
that Swiss officials have transferred $64.36 million of the looted money to the Central Bank
of Nigeria.
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In early April, Secretary of Defense William Cohen met with President Obasanjo in
Abuja and reportedly pledged $10 million to Nigeria in military aid, including an increase
in the International Military Education Training (IMET) program.
In a meeting with President Obasanjo in Abuja on August 26, 2000, President Clinton
stated that the U.S. is “committed to working with the people of Nigeria to help build
stronger institutions, improve education, fight disease, crime and corruption, ease the burden
of debt and promote trade and investment in a way that brings more of the benefits of
prosperity to people who have embraced democracy.” President Clinton also made an
unprecedented address before the Nigerian parliament in which he underscored the major
issues facing the country today. Among them were democratization and ethnic and religious
strife.
In late February 2001, direct flight from Lagos, Nigeria, to New York resumed after
several delays. The direct flight to New York is a joint venture between Nigeria Airways and
South African Airways. According to Nigerian officials, flight resumption “signifies the
further strengthening of relationship between Nigeria, the United States, and South Africa
and these relationship have positive political, social, and economic implications.”
In its Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2000, issued in late February, the
State Department stated that Nigeria’s “human rights record was poor; although there were
some improvements in several areas during the year, serious problems remain. The national
police, army, and security forces continued to commit extrajudicial killings and used
excessive force to quell civil unrest and ethnic violence, although they did so less frequently
than under previous military governments.”
On February 27, 2001, President Obasanjo stated that he would remove all subsidies
from petroleum products, as part of an overhaul of the energy sector and would increase
subsidies for education, health and water services. President Obasanjo gave a major
televised address to the nation in late December 2000, marking the first anniversary of his
government. Obasanjo gave an overview of his government’s achievements of the past 12
months and outlined his agenda for the future. The president acknowledged that serious
challenges face the country, including growing ethnic and religious clashes. He stated that
Nigeria will continue its peacekeeping role in West Africa.
In late April 2001, 47 African leaders met in Abuja, the capital, to discuss the AIDS
crisis in Africa. U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan called on donor governments to provide
at least $7 billion to combat AIDS in Africa. Former President Bill Clinton, who attended
the summit, also urged donor countries to assist in combating AIDS. Secretary of State Colin
Powell, who was expected to attend the summit, did not go due to conflict in his schedule,
according to the State Department.
In May 2001, President Obasanjo met with President Bush and other senior officials in
Washington. President Bush stated that the United States is “in the process of helping
provide technical assistance to Nigerian troops so that they are better able to keep those peace
missions.” At a joint White House press conference, President Bush pledged $200 million
into a new global fund for HIV/AIDS. President Obasanjo said he discussed a number of
issues of mutual interest, including the conflicts in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo,
and Sierra Leone.
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In late July 2001, the government of Nigeria announced a major AIDS treatment
program. President Obasanjo declared that his government would provide cheap generic
drugs to AIDS patients beginning September 1, 2001. Patients are expected to pay about $7
a month. Nigeria’s Health Minister negotiated a $350,000 deal with Cipla, an Indian
pharmaceutical company.
In early September 2001, clashes broke out between Muslims and Christians in the city
of Jos in northern Nigeria. An estimated 500 people were killed in the clashes and thousands
more were injured. Meanwhile, tens of thousands of civilians have reportedly fled their
homes for other locations. President Obasanjo sent the army to restore order.
In mid-September 2001, President Obasanjo strongly condemned the terrorist attacks
on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon and expressed his support in combating
terrorism. Obasanjo described the attacks as “callous and dastardly.” The Nigerian House
of Representatives also condemned the attacks, calling the terrorist action “an act of
terrorism against humanity.”
In late November 2001, the Obasanjo government announced that Nigeria has 8.7% of
the world’s AIDS cases. According to government figures, the number of cases has
increased from 2.7 million in 1999 to 3.47 million in 2001. In early December 2001, Nigeria
began to distribute cheap generic drugs to people with AIDS/HIV. The government plans
to distribute anti-retroviral drugs to an estimated 10,000 patients.
In early November 2001, President Obasanjo met with President Bush in Washington
express his government’s support for the U.S.-led anti-terrorism campaign. At a press
conference, Presidents Bush and Obasanjo pledged to work together. President Bush said
that Obasanjo “has been a steadfast friend of the United States government and the United
States people, before and after September 11th, and for that we are most grateful.” In
response, President Obasanjo stated that he came to the United States “to express solidarity,
to express support, to express condolences for the terrorist attack on this country, on innocent
people of all faiths and of all races on the 11th of September.”
In late December 2001, Nigerian Justice Minister Bola Ige was murdered by unknown
gunmen. A suspect in the murder of Ige surrendered to Nigerian authorities in mid-January.
In early January, a senior aide to Nigeria’s Chief Justice was found dead in Abuja. The Chief
Justice stated that the killing of his aide appeared to be murder.
In late January 2002, an estimated 500 people were killed after a huge explosion at an
army munitions dump in Lagos, Nigeria’s largest city with a population of 15 million.
According to press reports, most of those killed were civilians. President Obasanjo ordered
a full investigation.
Safiya Hussaini, a woman sentenced to be stoned to death for adultery in October 2001
by a Sharia court in Sokoto, Nigeria, has appealed her sentence and is currently awaiting a
ruling. Hussaini’s lawyers argued that she was impregnated by her former husband and that
the affair took place before Sharia law was enacted. The State prosecutors asserted that
Sharia law should be applied retroactively in this particular case.
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In late April 2002, President Obasanjo declared that he would seek re-election next year.
Presidential and parliamentary elections are scheduled to take place in April 2003. Obasanjo
also declared that he would keep his vice president as his running mate in the 2003 elections.
Meanwhile, former military ruler, Muhammadu Buhari, joined the opposition APP, and is
expected to challenge President Obasanjo.
In April 2002, the government of Nigeria reached an agreement with the Abacha family
on the funds said to have been stolen by the late dictator General Abacha. The agreement
calls for the return of $1 billion to the government of Nigeria, while the Abacha family
would be allowed to keep $100 million. Switzerland’s Federal Justice Department
announced that Swiss Banks would return to Nigeria an estimated $535 million, funds frozen
at the request of the Obasanjo government.
In late June 2002, President Obasanjo paid a short visit to Washington, his second in
less than a year. Obasanjo met with senior Bush Administration officials, Members of
Congress, and business interests. President Obasanjo also addressed participants at the Third
Biennial Leon H. Sullivan Summit Dinner. In his address to the audience, Obasanjo stated
that “we are coming together as Africans and we will be a strategic partner in world affairs
for generations to come.”
Local elections scheduled for August 2002 have been postponed for the third time due
to problems in voter registration. A new date has not been set. National elections are
expected to take place in 2003, and President Obasanjo has stated that he will run for a
second term.
On October 10, 2002, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) awarded the Bakassi
peninsula, a 400-square mile area believed to hold large oil reserves, to Cameroon. The ICJ
reportedly based its decision on a 1917 document between colonial powers Britain and
Germany. Nigeria and Cameroon have fought on a number of occasions in the past decade
over this patch of land. The Nigerian government has rejected the Court’s decision, although
President Obasanjo has said he would meet President Biya of Cameroon to find a peaceful
resolution to the problem.
In late November 2002, more than a hundred people were killed and an estimated 500
injured in religious violence in Kaduna, Nigeria. The violence erupted after a Lagos-based
newspaper suggested that the Prophet Mohammed would have no problem with the proposed
Miss World Pageant to be held in Nigeria and that the Prophet would have chosen one of
them to marry. The fighting between Christian and Muslim groups continued for several
days and the Miss World Pageant was forced to cancel the event in Nigeria.
Issues in U.S.-Nigerian Relations
Background
Relations between the United States and Nigeria deteriorated after the annulment of the
1993 elections by the military junta. Three issues dominated U.S.-Nigerian relations: the
absence of democracy, human rights abuses, and drug trafficking. Washington took a series
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of measures against the military junta shortly after the 1993 election results were annulled.
These included suspending development assistance, terminating joint military training with
Nigeria, and imposing visa restrictions of Nigeria’s military leaders and their family
members. These measures, however, did not affect trade between U.S. companies and
Nigeria. Washington was also engaged in diplomatic efforts, albeit unsuccessful, to break
the political impasse in the West African nation. The Clinton Administration sent civil rights
leader Jesse Jackson, then-U.N. Ambassador Bill Richardson, and former Ambassador
Donald McHenry as envoys to convince Abacha to implement reforms.
In response to the execution of nine Ogoni activists in 1995, the Clinton Administration
recalled its ambassador and pushed a resolution at the U.N. General Assembly that
condemned Nigeria’s action. The imprisonment of Moshood Abiola and many others was
a contentious issue in U.S.-Nigerian relations. In its Country Report on Human Rights
Practices for 1997, the Department of State wrote: “The human rights record remained
dismal. Throughout the year, Abacha’s Government relied regularly on arbitrary detention
and harassment to silence its most outspoken critics.” The report further stated that security
forces “continued to commit extrajudicial killings and use excessive force to quell anti-
government protests as well as to combat crime, resulting in the death or injury of many
individuals, including innocent civilians.” Human rights groups reported the torture of
prisoners and constant harassment of journalists under the Abacha regime.
Washington’s concern was not limited to human rights abuse allegations. Drug
trafficking by Nigeria emerged as a major issue in U.S.-Nigerian relations after the mid-
1980s. Although Nigeria is not a drug-producing country, it has become a major transit
point. An estimated 35-40% of all the heroin coming into the United States is brought by
Nigerian couriers. In 1989, the United States and Nigeria established a joint Counter-
Narcotics Task Force. Lack of cooperation by Nigerian authorities in combating the drug
trafficking problem led to a decision by the Clinton Administration in March 1998, as in
1994 and 1996, to put Nigeria on the State Department’s list of non-cooperative drug
trafficking nations, which includes Burma and Iran. As a consequence, the U.S. had to vote
“no” on all loans to Nigeria being considered by the World Bank and the African
Development Bank, and Nigeria was ineligible for any Export-Import Bank financing of U.S.
exports.
In March 2000, however, President Clinton provided a waiver, a Vital National Interests
Certification, for Nigeria in order to allow support for the democratic transition program.
According to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA), Nigeria’s anti narcotic efforts
remained “unfocused and lacking in material support.” According to the DEA (Lagos),
despite the new government’s efforts in dealing with the problem, “Nigerian law
enforcement agencies did not significantly improve their counter-drug performance in 1999”
[http://www.usembassy.state.gov/nigeria/]. Nigerian authorities point to the government’s
active cooperation with U.S. officials and increased funds appropriated by the Nigerian
government to fight drug trafficking. In March 2001, however, the Bush Administration
certified that Nigeria was fully cooperating with U.S. officials. According to a U.S. embassy
(Lagos) press release, “in spite of continued problems with corruption and a weak judicial
system, the Nigerian government has shown a commitment to improving its efforts in
fighting organized crime and drug trafficking [http://usembassy.state.gov/nigeria].”
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Through legislative action, Members of Congress were active concerning Nigeria. In
1994, the House of Representatives passed H.Con.Res. 151, which called for additional
measures against the military junta by the Clinton Administration. A bill calling for the
imposition of sanctions and freezing of assets was introduced in 1996 by then-Senator Nancy
Kassebaum and Representative Donald Payne. Although the bill enjoyed significant
bipartisan support, it did not move out of committees, in part because of opposition by
Members of Congress who favor dialogue with the Nigerian government. Pro-Nigerian
groups and some American business interests actively opposed the bill (The Washington
Post
, November 24, 1996). The Nigerian Democracy Act, introduced by Representative
Donald Payne and Representative Amo Houghton in 1997 (to be discussed below), contained
similar provisions, including a ban on new U.S. corporate investment in Nigeria. In May
1998 House International Relations Committee Chairman Benjamin A. Gilman and
Representative Donald M. Payne introduced the Nigerian Democracy and Civil Society
Empowerment Act (H.R. 3890), calling for additional sanctions and increased U.S. aid to
democratic opposition groups. The bill was also introduced in the Senate in May 1998 by
Senators Feingold, Jeffords, Leahy, and Wellstone. The bill was sent to committees in both
houses, but the 105th Congress did not act further on either piece of legislation.
Conflicts within the Clinton Administration regarding the appropriate strategy toward
Nigeria while under the control of Abacha surfaced in speeches given by senior
Administration officials and President Clinton in early 1998. Assistant Secretary of State for
African Affairs Dr. Susan Rice stated in a speech on March 17, 1998, that the United States
would hold “General Abacha to his 3-year-old promise to undertake a genuine transition to
civilian rule this year and to establish a level playing field by allowing free political activity,
providing for an open press, and ending political detention. Let me state clearly and
unequivocally to you today that an election victory by any military candidate in the
forthcoming presidential elections would be unacceptable.” In late March, President Clinton
stated that U.S. policy toward Nigeria was “to do all that we can to persuade General Abacha
to move toward general democracy and respect for human rights, release of political
prisoners, and the holding of elections.” Referring to General Abacha’s rumored candidacy,
however, President Clinton seemed to contradict Rice by suggesting that “if [Abacha] stands
for election we hope he will stand as a civilian.” President Clinton’s March statement led
some critics to question the Administration’s policy toward Abacha and the military junta.
The Administration came to a final decision on May 28, saying that the proposed
transition was clearly “unacceptable” as long as Abacha remained the single candidate and
that current sanctions would remain (The Washington Post, May 29, 1998). Following
Abacha’s death, State Department spokesman James P. Rubin stated that Abubakar had “a
historic opportunity to open the political process and institute a swift and credible transition
to civilian democratic rule.” Rubin said that Washington would “accept” only a transition
that included “three things: first, freeing political prisoners; second, ensuring respect for the
basic freedoms of speech, press, and assembly; and third, returning the Nigerian army to its
rightful position as a professional armed force committed to defending the constitution and
civilian rule.” U.S. officials had anticipated that Abubakar would be more cooperative with
the United States because he received military training here. On June 14, 1998, President
Clinton called Abubakar and “underscored our desire for improved bilateral relations in the
context of Nigeria taking swift and significant steps toward a successful transition to a
democratically-elected government” (Associated Press, June 14, 1998).
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The U.S. officials who met with Abubakar in July 1998 reported that he appeared very
receptive to implementing the transition to democracy, although he would continue
consultations before releasing the final details of the transition. Critics asserted that the
United States should have pushed harder for Abiola’s unconditional release in order for him
to consult with advisers rather than consent to renouncing his title under political pressure.
Critics also warned that a hands-off policy could enable the regime to proceed slowly with
reforms that may escalate civil conflict to the point of war in which ethnic rivalries could
erupt on a massive scale. The Clinton Administration, nonetheless, welcomed Abubakar’s
transition program, and on October 30, 1998, the U.S. State Department announced that the
Secretary, after consulting with Members of Congress, has terminated a Presidential
Proclamation that restricted entry into the United States by high-ranking Nigerian officials
and their family members.
The United States and the Obasanjo Government
Relations between Washington and Abuja began to improve shortly after General
Abubakar assumed power. In September 1998, Abubakar visited the United States for the
U.N. General Assembly meeting, and also came to Washington to meet with President
Clinton at the White House. After the meeting, Abubakar said President Clinton told him
that if Nigeria stayed on its democratic course, the United States was prepared to help win
some debt relief from international lending institutions and might also allow the resumption
of direct air links between the U.S. and Nigeria. U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright
also praised Abubakar for “taking steps to bring Nigeria back into the world community”
(New York Times, September 25, 1998). U.S. officials applauded Abubakar’s transition
program and warmly welcomed the transfer of power to an elected civilian government and
promised to work closely with the Obasanjo government.
In mid-October 1999, then Secretary of State Albright visited Nigeria and met with
senior government officials and civil society groups. At a press briefing following her Africa
tour, Secretary Albright stated that the government and people of Nigeria are “engaged in a
dramatic and high-stakes struggle to establish a viable democratic system.” She said
President Obasanjo “appears truly committed to jump-starting the economy, fighting
corruption and resolving regional problems that remain a source of unrest within Nigeria.”
In late October 1999, President Obasanjo met with President Clinton and other senior
government officials in Washington. At a White House press briefing, President Clinton
said that “it is very much in America’s interests that Nigeria succeed, and therefore we
should assist them in their success. We intend to increase our assistance to Nigeria to expand
law-enforcement cooperation and to work toward an agreement to stimulate trade and
investment between us. We intend to do what we can to help Nigeria recover assets
plundered by the previous regime.” President Clinton stated that the United States will
support “generous debt rescheduling through the Paris Club and encourage other countries
to take further steps.”
In a meeting with President Obasanjo in Abuja on August 26, 2000, President Clinton
stated that the United States is “committed to working with the people of Nigeria to help
build stronger institutions, improve education, fight disease, crime and corruption, ease the
burden of debt and promote trade and investment in a way that brings more of the benefits
of prosperity to people who have embraced democracy.” Clinton also made an
unprecedented address before the Nigerian parliament in which he underscored the major
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issues facing Nigeria today, including democratization and ethnic and religious strife.
President Clinton announced a number of new initiatives during his Nigeria visit. He
pledged $60 million for AIDS vaccine research and more than $20 million for Obasanjo’s
campaigns against malaria, polio, and HIV/AIDS. He also praised Nigeria’s regional
leadership and promised continued U.S. support for the West African peacekeeping mission
in Sierra Leone. He pledged continued U.S. support for education, including the provision
of Internet access through the work of NGOs and universities.
In May 2001, President Obasanjo met with President Bush and other senior officials in
Washington. President Bush stated that the United States is “in the process of helping
provide technical assistance to Nigerian troops so that they are better able to keep those peace
missions.” At a joint White House press conference, President Bush pledged $200 million
into a new global fund for HIV/AIDS. President Obasanjo said he discussed a number of
issues of mutual interest, including the conflicts in Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo,
and Sierra Leone.
Table 1. U.S. Assistance to Nigeria
($ millions, fiscal years)
Program
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002*
2003**
DA
5.893
6.520
1.670
4.100
3.500
10
10.500
30.9
18.5
66.2
CSD




3.500
6.8
17.000
23.3
37.0
ESF
--
--
--
--
--
6.9
20.000
23.4
FMF
--





10.000
Grants
P. Corps
1.047
.429
--
--
--
--
--
IMET





.090
.600
Total
6.940
6.949
1.670
4.100
7.000
23.80
58.100
77.7
55.6
66.2
Table Abbreviations:
DA=Development Assistance
CSD=Child Survival and Disease Programs Fund
ESF=Economic Support Fund
P. Corps=Peace Corps
IMET=International Military Education and Training
* Estimate
**Request
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CONGRESSIONAL HEARINGS, REPORTS, AND DOCUMENTS
Testimony by Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Susan Rice before the House
Committee on International Relations. “Prospects for Democracy in Nigeria.” June 25,
1998.
U.S. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on Africa.
United States Policy Toward Nigeria. Hearing, 105th Congress, 1st session. September
18, 1997. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997. 35 pp.
FOR ADDITIONAL READING
For an extensive list of Internet resources on Nigeria, including news on politics, the
economy, and the culture, see [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/nigeria.html].
Boustany, Nora. “Quiet Confidence in Nigeria’s Future.” The Washington Post. November
11, 1998. A30 p.
Chiahemen, John. “Nigeria Disputes Ruling to Cede Land.” The Washington Post. October
24, 2002.
Onishi, Norimitsu. “Hopeful but Skeptical, Nigerians Await Democracy.” The New York
Times. November 9, 1998. A3 p.
–– “Nigeria’s Strongman Is Still Standing.” The New York Times. September 1, 2002.
Rupert, James. “Denied Wealth, Nigeria’s Poor Take Dire Steps.” The Washington Post.
November 6, 1998. A17 p.
Steinglass, Matt. “Why is Nigerian Islam So Radical?” The New York Times. December 1,
2002.
U.S. Department of State Press Statement. “End to Special Visa Restrictions on Certain
Nigerian Nationals.” October 30, 1998.
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