Order Code IB93017
Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Space Stations
Updated August 28, 2002
Marcia S. Smith
Resources, Science, and Industry Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
The Space Station Program: 1984-1993
Space Station Freedom
1993 Redesign—the Clinton Administration Restructuring
The International Space Station (ISS): 1993-Present
Phase I: The Shuttle-Mir Program
Phases II and III: ISS Design, Cost, Schedule, and Lifetime
September 1993-January 2001: the Clinton Administration Plan
Cost Growth During the Clinton Administration
Cost Caps
2001-Present: the Bush Administration Restructuring
Cost Growth
“Core Complete” Configuration
The IMCE (“Young”) Task Force
Concerns of the Non-U.S. Partners and U.S. Researchers
The REMAP Report on ISS Scientific Research
Risks and Benefits of Russian Participation, and the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA)
Congressional Action
FY2002
FY2003
International Partners
The Original Partners: Europe, Canada, and Japan
Russia
Issues For Congressional Consideration
Rationale
Cost and Cost Effectiveness
Operations and Commercialization Issues, Including Transhab
Issues Related to Russia’s Participation
LEGISLATION
For detailed information on the International Space Station Management and Cost
Evaluation Task Force (the “Young Report”), see CRS Report RL31216.



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Space Stations
SUMMARY
Congress continues to debate NASA’s
President Clinton’s 1993 decision to
program to build a permanently occupied
bring Russia into the program was a dramatic
space station in Earth orbit where astronauts
change. Under the 1993 agreement, Phase I of
live and conduct research. NASA expects that
U.S./Russian space station cooperation in-
research performed in the near-zero gravity
volved flights of Russians on the U.S. space
environment of the space station will result in
shuttle and Americans on Russia’s Mir space
new discoveries in life sciences, biomedicine,
station. Phases II and III involve the con-
and materials sciences. The program is cur-
struction of ISS as a multinational facility.
rently called the International Space Station
(ISS); the facility itself is informally referred
In 1993, when the current design was
to as ISS or “Space Station Alpha.”
adopted, NASA said the space station would
cost $17.4 billion for construction; no more
The space station is being assembled in
than $2.1 billion per year. The estimate did
Earth orbit. Almost 90 launches are needed to
not include launch or other costs. NASA
take the various segments, crews, and cargo
exceeded the $2.1 billion figure in FY1998,
into orbit; more than a dozen have taken place
and the $17.4 billion estimate grew to $24.1-
already. ISS has been permanently occupied
$26.4 billion. Congress legislated spending
by successive “expedition” crews rotating on
caps on part of the program in 2000. Costs
4-6 month shifts since November 2000.
have grown almost $5 billion since. NASA
“Expedition 5” is now onboard. The ISS
plans to cancel or indefinitely defer some
crews are routinely visited by other astronauts
hardware to stay within the cap.
and cosmonauts on U.S. space shuttle or
Russian Soyuz missions. The original date to
Controversial since the program began in
complete ISS assembly, June 2002, slipped to
1984, the space station has been repeatedly
April 2006, with at least 10 years of opera-
designed and rescheduled, often for cost-
tions expected to follow. Cost overruns in
growth reasons. Congress has been concerned
2001 are forcing additional schedule changes,
about the space station for that and other
however, and the current schedule is
reasons. Twenty-two attempts to terminate the
uncertain. Congress appropriated about $30
program in NASA funding bills, however,
billion for the program from FY1985-2002.
were defeated (3 in the 106th Congress, 4 in
The FY2003 request is $1.84 billion.
the 105th Congress, 5 in the 104th, 5 in the
103rd, and 5 in the 102nd). Three other at-
Canada, Japan, and several European
tempts in broader legislation in the 103rd
countries became partners with NASA in
Congress also failed.
building the space station in 1988; Russia
joined in 1993. Brazil also is participating,
Current congressional debate focuses on
but not as a partner. Except for money paid to
cost growth in NASA’s part of the program
Russia, there is no exchange of funds among
and the resulting possibility that portions of
the partners. Europe, Canada, and Japan
the space station may not be built; and
collectively expect to spend about $11 billion
whether Russia can fulfill its commitments to
of their own money. A reliable figure for
ISS.
Russian expenditures is not available.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
The “Expedition 5” crew of two Russians (Valeriy Korzun and Sergei Treschev) and
one American (Peggy Whitson) continues its work aboard the International Space Station
(ISS), which is under construction in orbit. Fuel line cracks in the space shuttle orbiters (see
CRS Issue Brief 93062), and unrelated problems with the “crawler” that transports the
shuttle to its launch pad, caused slips to the shuttle’s launch schedule. The next mission is
now scheduled for October 2. It will take additional segments to the station to continue
construction. Another shuttle mission is scheduled for November 2 that will take a new crew
to ISS and return the Expedition 5 crew to Earth (one month later than originally planned).
In between the two shuttle flights, the Russians are scheduled to launch the next Soyuz “taxi”
mission to replace the Soyuz spacecraft currently attached to ISS. The crew of the taxi
mission may include U.S. singer Lance Bass of the *NSYNC band. NASA and the other ISS
partners have approved his participation in the flight, but final contractual arrangements
have not been concluded between Mr. Bass’ representatives and the Russians.

For FY2003, NASA is requesting a total of $1.839 billion for the space station program
($1.492 billion to build it, plus $347 million for scientific research aboard ISS). This is
$254 million less than the comparable figure for FY2002, reflecting the fact much of the
hardware has been built and the Bush Administration has decided to truncate construction
at a stage it calls “core complete.” The FY2003 request is slightly higher than the $1.818
billion NASA projected it would need for FY2003 last year. The Senate Appropriations
Committee approved the requested amounts in its July 25 report on the FY2003 VA-HUD-IA
appropriations act (S. 2797, S.Rept. 107-222).

The decision to truncate construction responds to the revelation in 2001 of significant
cost growth ($5 billion above an existing $7 billion overrun) that raised the estimate for
building ISS to $30 billion, exceeding a legislated cap of $25 billion. NASA is developing a
new cost estimate for building the scaled-down configuration that is expected to be released
in September. The Bush Administration says that “enhancements” to ISS beyond the core
complete configuration are possible if NASA demonstrates cost estimating and management
improvements, but will not commit to building any such enhancements. The core complete
configuration will permit only three crew members to live and work aboard ISS, instead of
the seven planned. With a smaller crew, significantly less research can be conducted, which
will affect all the partners in the program (U. S., Europe, Canada, Japan, and Russia).

BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
NASA launched its first space station, Skylab, in 1973. Three successive crews were
sent to live and work there in 1973-74. It remained in orbit, unoccupied, until it reentered
Earth’s atmosphere in July 1979, disintegrating over Australia and the Indian Ocean. Skylab
was never intended to be permanently occupied. The goal of a permanently occupied space
station with crews rotating on a regular basis was high on NASA’s list for the post-Apollo
years. In 1969, Vice President Agnew’s Space Task Group recommended a permanent space
station and a reusable space transportation system (the space shuttle) to service it as the core
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of NASA’s program in the 1970s and 1980s. Budget constraints forced NASA to choose to
build the space shuttle first. When the shuttle was declared operational in 1982, NASA was
ready to initiate the space station program.
In his January 25, 1984 State of the Union address, President Reagan directed NASA
to develop a permanently occupied space station within a decade and to invite other countries
to participate in the project. On July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the first Apollo
landing on the Moon, President George H. W. Bush gave a major space policy address in
which he voiced his support for the space station as the cornerstone of a long-range civilian
space program eventually leading to bases on the Moon and Mars.
President Clinton was strongly supportive of the space station program, and
dramatically changed its character in 1993 by adding Russia as a partner to this already
international endeavor. Adding Russia made the space station part of the U.S. foreign policy
agenda to encourage Russia to abide by agreements to stop the proliferation of ballistic
missile technology, and to support Russia economically and politically.
President George W. Bush has not made a statement about his position on the space
station program. However, Sean O’Keefe, while serving as deputy director of the Office of
Management and Budget, told the House Appropriations VA-HUD-IA subcommittee on
May 3, 2001, that the Bush Administration intends to bring costs under control. Mr. O’Keefe
is now the Administrator of NASA.
The Space Station Program: 1984-1993
NASA began the current program to build a space station in 1984 (FY1985). In 1988,
the space station was named Freedom. Following a major redesign in 1993, NASA
announced that the Freedom program had ended and a new program begun, though NASA
asserts that 75% of the design of the “new” station is from Freedom. The new program does
not have a formal name and is simply referred to as the International Space Station (ISS).
Individual ISS modules have various names, and the entire facility is informally referred to
as ISS or “Space Station Alpha.” ISS is a laboratory in space for conducting experiments in
near-zero gravity (“microgravity”). Life sciences research on how humans adapt to long
durations in space, biomedical research, and materials processing research on new materials
or processes are underway or contemplated. From FY1985 through FY2002, Congress
appropriated approximately $30 billion for the space station program (a year-by-year table
is included under Congressional Action below).
Space Station Freedom
When NASA began the space station program in 1984, it said the program would cost
$8 billion (FY1984 dollars) for research and development (R&D—essentially the cost for
building the station without launch costs) through completion of assembly. From FY1985-
1993, NASA was appropriated $11.4 billion for the Freedom program. Most of the funding
went for designing and redesigning the station over those years. Little hardware was built and
none was launched. Several major redesigns were made. A 1991 redesign evoked concerns
about the amount of science that could be conducted on the scaled-down space station. Both
the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) and the Space Studies
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Board (SSB) of the National Research Council concluded that materials science research
could not justify building the space station, and questioned how much life sciences research
could be supported, criticizing the lack of firm plans for flying a centrifuge, considered
essential to this research. NASA subsequently agreed to launch a centrifuge.
Cost estimates for Freedom varied widely depending on when they were made and what
was included. Freedom was designed to be operated for 30 years. As the program ended
in 1993, NASA’s estimate was $90 billion (current dollars): $30 billion through the end of
construction, plus $60 billion to operate it for 30 years. The General Accounting Office
(GAO) estimated the total cost at $118 billion, including 30 years of operations.
In 1988, after 3 years of negotiations, Japan, Canada and nine European countries under
the aegis of the European Space Agency (ESA) agreed to be partners in the space station
program (two more since have joined). An Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) on a
government-to-government level was signed in September, and Memoranda of
Understanding (MOUs) between NASA and the other relevant space agencies were signed
then or in 1989. The partners agreed to provide hardware for the space station at their own
expense, a total of $8 billion at the time.
1993 Redesign—the Clinton Administration Restructuring
In early 1993, as President Clinton took office, NASA revealed $1 billion in cost growth
on the Freedom program. The President gave NASA 90 days to develop a new, less costly,
design with a reduced operational period of 10 years. A new design, Alpha, emerged on
September 7, 1993, which NASA estimated would cost $19.4 billion. It would have used
some hardware bought from Russia, but Russia was not envisioned as a partner. Five days
earlier, however, the White House announced it had reached preliminary agreement with
Russia to build a joint space station. Now called the International Space Station (ISS), it
superseded the September 7 Alpha design. NASA asserted it would be a more capable space
station and be ready sooner at less cost to the United States. Compared with the September
7 Alpha design, ISS was to be completed 1 year earlier, have 25% more usable volume, 42.5
kilowatts more electrical power, and accommodate 6 instead of 4 crew members.
In 1993, President Clinton pledged to request $10.5 billion ($2.1 billion a year) for
FY1994-1998. NASA said the new station would cost $17.4 billion to build, not including
money already expended on the Freedom program. That estimate was derived from the
$19.4 billion estimate for the September 7 Alpha design minus $2 billion that NASA said
would be saved by having Russia in the program. The $2.1 billion and $17.4 billion figures
became known as “caps,” though they were not set in law. (See Cost Caps below).
The International Space Station (ISS): 1993-Present
The International Space Station program thus began in 1993, with Russia added as a
partner, joining the United States, Europe, Japan, and Canada. The 1993 and subsequent
agreements with Russia established three phases of space station cooperation and the
payment to Russia of $400 million ($100 million per year for FY1994-1997). In 1996,
NASA increased that amount to $473 million, of which approximately $323 million was for
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Phase I and $150 million for Phase II. ( NASA has transferred a total of approximately $800
million to Russia for space station cooperation through this and other contracts.)
Phase I: The Shuttle-Mir Program
During Phase I (1995-1998), seven U.S. astronauts remained on Russia’s space station
Mir for long duration (several month) missions with Russian cosmonauts, Russian
cosmonauts flew on the U.S. space shuttle seven times, and nine space shuttle missions
docked with Mir to exchange crews and deliver supplies. Repeated system failures and two
life-threatening emergencies on Mir in 1997 (see CRS Report 97-685) raised questions about
whether NASA should leave more astronauts on Mir, but NASA decided Mir was
sufficiently safe to continue the program.
Phases II and III: ISS Design, Cost, Schedule, and Lifetime
NASA identifies Phases II and III of the ISS program separately, but they blend into
each other. Phase II was completed in July 2001 and Phase III is underway. As noted, ISS
is being built by the United States, Russia, 10 or 11 European countries, Japan, Canada, and
Brazil (which is not a partner on the program, but has a bilateral agreement with NASA to
participate). Boeing is the U.S. prime contractor for ISS. NASA originally stated that ISS
would be operated for 10 years after assembly was completed, with a possibility for 5
additional years if the research was considered worthwhile. Using the original schedule,
assembly would have been completed in 2002, with operations through 2012. By 2001, that
scheduled had slipped by four years, and with the new approach being taken by the Bush
Administration, it is not clear when assembly will be “complete.” Hence, while the
operational period remains at 10 years, correlating that with a specific year is difficult. Each
U.S. module was designed with a 15 year lifetime (5 years during the assembly period, plus
10 years thereafter). Spacecraft often exceed their design lifetimes, however, so that also
may not serve as a reliable benchmark for any particular space station segment.
September 1993-January 2001: the Clinton Administration Plan. The
following section describes ISS as it was envisioned in 1993 and how it evolved through
2001. This is the configuration detailed in the international agreements that govern the
program—the Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA) among the respective governments, and
Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) between NASA and each of its counterpart agencies.
ISS segments are launched into space on U.S. or Russian launch vehicles and assembled
in orbit. The space station is designed to be composed of a multitude of modules, solar
arrays to generate electricity, remote manipulator systems, and other elements that are too
numerous to describe here. Details can be found at [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov]. Six major
modules are now in orbit. The first two were launched in 1998: Zarya (“Sunrise,” with
guidance, navigation, and control systems) and Unity (a “node” connecting other modules).
Next was Zvezda (“Star,” the crew’s living quarters) in 2000. Destiny (a U.S. laboratory),
Quest (an airlock), and Pirs (“Pier,” a docking compartment) arrived in 2001. The U.S.
space shuttle, and Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, take crews and cargo to and from
ISS. A Soyuz is always attached to the station as a lifeboat in the event of an emergency.
The schedule for launching segments and crews is called the “assembly sequence” and
has been revised many times. The most recent formal assembly sequence, “Rev F,” was
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released in August 2000, and showed a date for completion of assembly (“assembly
complete”) in April 2006. As discussed below, that assembly sequence is no longer valid,
but a revised sequence has not been released. As an indication of the number of launches
that were planned, there are 50 launches in the Rev F assembly sequence: 40 are American,
9 are Russian, and one unassigned (of the European Automated Transfer Vehicle) although
Europe plans to launch ATV on its Ariane launch vehicle. In addition, Russia is expected
to provide about two flights of its Soyuz spacecraft, and three to six Progress spacecraft, each
year. Although NASA is reviewing its plans for ISS (see below), construction of the station
continues and is generally following the Rev. F assembly sequence today.
Three-person “expedition” crews occupy ISS on a rotating basis. They remain for 4-6
months and are composed alternately of two Russians and one American, or two Americans
and one Russian. The number of astronauts who can live on the space station is limited in
part by how many can be returned to Earth in an emergency by lifeboats docked to the
station. Currently, only Russian Soyuz spacecraft are available as lifeboats. Each Soyuz can
hold three people, limiting the space station crew size to three if only one Soyuz is attached.
Each Soyuz must be replaced every 6 months. The replacement missions are called “taxi”
flights since the crews bring a new Soyuz up to ISS and bring the old one back to Earth.
NASA planned to build a U.S. Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) for at least four more crew
members, allowing crew size to increase to seven. NASA actually was designing a CRV
capable of accommodating six to seven crew members in case Russia was not financially
able to provide Soyuzes in the future. The CRV would have had a lifetime of 3 years, instead
of 6 months like the Soyuz, reducing operational costs. NASA also planned to build a
Habitation Module to accommodate the larger crew, and a Propulsion Module to provide fuel
in case Russia was not able to provide all the Progress spacecraft it promised. Europe also
was to provide Node 3, another connection point between modules. As discussed below, the
Bush Administration has canceled or deferred these ISS elements.
Cost Growth During the Clinton Administration. From FY1994-FY2001, the
cost estimate for building ISS grew from $17.4 billion to $24.1-26.4 billion, an increase of
$6.7-$9 billion. The $17.4 billion (called its “development cost,” “construction cost,” or
“R&D cost”) covered FY1994 through completion of assembly, then scheduled for June
2002. That estimate did not include launch costs, operational costs after completion of
assembly, civil service costs, or other costs. NASA estimated the program’s life-cycle cost
(all costs, including funding spent prior to 1993) from FY1985 through FY2012 at $72.3
billion. A more recent NASA life-cycle estimate is not available. In 1998, GAO estimated
the life-cycle cost at $95.6 billion (GAO/NSIAD-98-147).
Cost growth first emerged publicly in March 1996 when NASA Administrator Daniel
Goldin gave the space station program manager control of money allocated for (and
previously overseen by) the science offices at NASA for space station research. Congress
gave NASA approval to transfer $177 million from those science accounts to space station
construction in the FY1997 VA-HUD-IA appropriations act (P.L. 104- 204). A similar
transfer was approved for FY1996 ($50 million). NASA changed its accounting methods
so future transfers would not require congressional action, and transferred $235 million from
space station science into construction in FY1998. (“Space station science” funding is for
scientific activities aboard the space station. It is separate from NASA’s other “space
science” funding, such as Mars exploration, astrophysics, or earth sciences.)
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One factor in the cost growth was schedule slippage related to Russia’s Zvezda module.
As insurance against further Zvezda delays, or a launch or docking failure, NASA decided
to build an “Interim Control Module” (ICM). To cover cost growth associated with the
schedule delay and ICM, NASA requested permission to move $200 million in FY1997 from
the space shuttle and payload utilization and operations accounts to the space station
program, and to transfer $100 million in FY1998 from unidentified NASA programs to the
space station program. The appropriations committees approved transferring the $200
million in FY1997, but not the FY1998 funding.
In September 1997, NASA and Boeing revealed that Boeing’s prime contract would
have at least a $600 million overrun at completion, and that NASA needed $430 million
more than expected in FY1998. Boeing’s estimate of its contract overrun grew to $986
million in 1999, where it remained. In 2001, NASA estimated that overrun at $1.14 billion.
The contract runs through December 31, 2003.
In March 1998, NASA announced that the estimate for building the space station had
grown from $17.4 billion to $21.3 billion. In April 1998, NASA released a review of space
station costs conducted by an independent task force reporting to the NASA Advisory
Council. Headed by Jay Chabrow, the report concluded that the space station’s cost through
assembly complete could be $24.7 billion and assembly could take 10-38 months longer.
NASA agreed its schedule was optimistic and there would be about $1.4 billion in additional
costs, but Administrator Goldin refused to endorse the $24.7 billion estimate. By 2000, the
cost estimate had increased to $24.1-$26.4 billion.
Cost Caps. The $2.1 billion per year figure the White House and Congress agreed
to spend on the space station, and NASA’s $17.4 billion estimate to build the station, became
known as “caps,” although they were not set in law. Both were exceeded in 1997-1998. As
costs continued to rise, Congress voted to legislate caps on certain parts of the ISS program
in the FY2000-2002 NASA authorization act (P.L. 106-391). The caps are $25 billion for
development, plus $17.7 billion for associated shuttle launches. The act also authorizes an
additional $5 billion for development and $3.5 billion for associated shuttle launches in case
of specified contingencies. The caps do not apply to operations, research, or crew return
activities after the space station is “substantially” complete, defined as when development
costs consume 5% or less of the annual space station budget. The General Accounting
Office (GAO) reported in April 2002 that it could not verify whether NASA is complying
with the cap because NASA cannot provide the data GAO requires (GAO-02-504R).
2001-Present: the Bush Administration Restructuring. ISS construction
continues, but significant additional cost growth has led to another restructuring.
Cost Growth. As President Bush took office, NASA revealed substantial additional
cost growth. In 2000, NASA’s estimate of the remaining cost to build ISS was $8 billion
(FY2002 to FY2006). In January 2001, however, it revealed that an additional $4.02 billion
was needed. That figure grew to $4.8 billion by June, and the IMCE task force (discussed
below) said another $366 million in growth was discovered between August and October.
Those increases would have raised the cost to over $30 billion, 72% above the 1993 estimate,
and $5 billion above the legislated cap. NASA explained that the cost growth became
evident as 2000 progressed and program managers realized that they had underestimated the
complexity of building and operating the station. The agency thought it had sufficient
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funding in program reserve accounts to cover contingencies, but in late 2000 and early 2001
concluded that funding was insufficient. The Bush Administration signaled it would not
provide additional funds, and NASA would have to find what it needed from within its
Human Space Flight account. The Administration said it supported the legislated cap. A
July 2002 GAO report (GAO-02-735) traces financial developments in the ISS program from
May 2000-November 2001 and concludes that NASA’s focus on managing annual budgets
resulted in NASA’s failure to heed indicators of future program cost growth.
“Core Complete” Configuration. In its February 2001 “Budget Blueprint,” the
Bush Administration announced it would cancel or defer some ISS hardware to stay within
the cap and control space station costs. It canceled the Propulsion Module, and indefinitely
deferred the Habitation Module, Node 3, and the CRV. The decision truncates construction
of the space station at a stage the Administration calls “core complete.” At that time, NASA
estimated that it would cost $8.3 billion to build the core complete configuration. In its
briefings on the FY2003 budget request, NASA described “core complete” as including the
planned launches of U.S. hardware through Node 2, plus launch of the European and
Japanese laboratory modules, and the Centrifuge Accommodation Module (CAM). The
$8.3 billion estimate for core complete was questioned by the IMCE task force (see below)
and NASA is developing a new estimate that will be reviewed by a non-NASA cost analysis
group. NASA expects to release it in September 2002. Which space station elements are
included in “core complete” remains unclear.
The IMCE (“Young”) Task Force. At the urging of the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB), NASA created the ISS Management and Cost Evaluation (IMCE) Task
Force in July 2001. Headed by retired Lockheed Martin executive Tom Young, the task
force was chartered to evaluate ISS program management and cost estimates. IMCE was a
subunit of the NASA Advisory Council (NAC). The task force released its report on
November 2, 2001 [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/youngrep.pdf], concluding
that NASA’s estimate for FY2002-2006 of $8.3 billion to finish the “U.S. core complete”
stage was not credible. The task force called on NASA to make significant management and
cost estimating changes by June 2002. IMCE viewed the next two years as a period for
NASA to demonstrate credibility. If it does, a decision could be made to restore the CRV and
Habitation Module (or something similar, perhaps contributed by another partner under a
barter agreement) as “enhancements.” See CRS Report RL31216 for more on IMCE.
NASA has not released a formal response to the IMCE report yet, although it is
implementing some of its recommendations. In one area, the result is not exactly what IMCE
had in mind. IMCE recommended that the number of shuttle flights per year in support of
ISS be cut to four. IMCE estimated that would generate $668 million in savings over 5 years
that could be applied to ISS. NASA followed the recommendation to reduce the shuttle
flight rate to ISS to four per year, but allocated all of the savings to the shuttle program itself.
Additional shuttle flights can be purchased by other NASA program offices at $70 million
per launch (the marginal shuttle launch cost). If the ISS program needs more than four
flights per year, therefore, it could pay for additional flights. In essence, instead of adding
money to the ISS budget, the flight rate change could increase ISS costs if more than four
flights per year are necessary.
Concerns of the Non-U.S. Partners and U.S. Researchers. The non-U.S.
partners, and U.S. scientists who plan to conduct research on ISS, have expressed deep
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concern with the “core complete” configuration. The concerns focus on the decision to
indefinitely defer the Crew Return Vehicle (CRV). Without CRV, the space station can
accommodate only three permanent crew members, not seven as planned. Since 2 ½ crew
members are needed to operate and maintain the station, this leaves only one-half of one
person’s time to conduct research. Research is ostensibly one of the major reasons for
building the space station. For U.S. researchers, another issue is that NASA also has reduced
the space station research budget by 37.5% over the FY2002-2006 period, necessitating a
reassessment of U.S. research priorities on ISS. For Europe, Canada, and Japan, the “core
complete” configuration also poses problems because the additional four permanent crew
member slots were to be allocated, in part, to their astronauts. Without those positions,
European, Japanese, and Canadian astronauts would be able to work aboard ISS only for
short durations as part of visiting crews on the U.S. space shuttle or Russian Soyuz “taxi”
missions, which bring a new Soyuz spacecraft to ISS every six months (Soyuzes must be
replaced at that interval).
Instead of building a CRV, one option is to procure additional Soyuzes, so two could
be docked at the station at a time. That would allow crew size to expand to six (in an
emergency, three could be returned in each Soyuz). What price Russia would charge for
additional Soyuzes is not yet known. Another partner might choose to develop a lifeboat
capability, although this would take considerable time and money. NASA had been
discussing the possibility of a joint CRV development program with Europe and with Japan,
but with NASA’s budget uncertainty, those discussions reportedly have been put on hold.
Europe, Canada, and Japan have all expressed deep concern about the new plan (see
CRS Report RL31216). At an ESA ministerial meeting on November 14-15, 2001, ESA
confirmed it will fulfill its obligations under the IGA, and expects NASA to do the same.
ESA approved full funding for its part of the space station, but will defer release of 60% of
it pending confirmation from NASA that the IGA will be fulfilled. At a “heads of agency”
meeting on June 3, 2002, all the partners reaffirmed their commitment to working together
on ISS. At about that time, Japanese officials began indicating that funding constraints in
Japan were leading them to look at reducing their financial participation as well.
The REMAP Report on ISS Scientific Research. On July 10, 2002, the
Research Maximization and Prioritization (REMAP) task force reported to the NASA
Advisory Council (NAC) on its efforts to reprioritize NASA’s ISS scientific research
program in light of the decision to scale back the space station’s capabilities; the report is
available at [ftp://ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/pao/reports/2002/REMAPrept.pdf]. REMAP’s terms
of reference were developed by the NASA Administrator, OMB, and the White House Office
of Science and Technology Policy. REMAP was directed to review broadly the science
objectives of NASA’s Office of Biological and Physical Research (OBPR), but it focused on
that OBPR research intended to be conducted on ISS, rather than using other space- or
ground-based facilities. REMAP recommended that OBPR’s existing research plan for ISS
be reconfigured with an interdisciplinary approach, identified research priorities,
reemphasized the need for a centrifuge, and stressed the need for a strategy for conducting
research. It also recommended that if NASA does not build ISS beyond the core complete
configuration, then the agency should cease characterizing ISS as a science-driven program
because of the limited amount of research that could be conducted. REMAP noted that there
may be other valid justifications for building ISS, however. Representative Ralph Hall,
ranking Democrat on the House Science Committee, issued a statement saying that REMAP
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confirmed his warnings that truncating ISS construction would lead to a space station not
worthy of the taxpayer dollars already invested in it. He called on NASA Administrator
O’Keefe to commit publicly to restoring ISS to its full capabilities. Mr. O’Keefe released
a statement commending REMAP’s efforts and saying the report would help NASA develop
a comprehensive strategy to utilize resources of ISS and the shuttle for OBPR research. He
indicated that he would implement quickly one REMAP recommendation—to create a
position of “chief science officer” as part of ISS expedition crews.
Risks and Benefits of Russian Participation, and the Iran
Nonproliferation Act (INA)

For many years, controversy over the ISS program focused on Russia’s participation in
the program. Among the issues were the extent to which successful completion of ISS is
dependent on Russia, Russia’s financial ability to meet its commitments, and whether the
United States should provide funding to Russia if it proliferates missile technology to certain
countries. While there is no exchange of funds among the other ISS partners, the United
States (and other partners) provide funding to Russia. By 1998, the United States had paid
approximately $800 million to Russia for space station cooperation. Although attention is
currently focused on NASA’s budgetary problems, the issues concerning Russia’s role
remain as important today as they were in the past.
Following the Clinton Administration’s decision to bring Russia into the program,
Congress stated that Russian participation “should enhance and not enable” the space station
(H.Rept. 103-273, to accompany H.R. 2491, the FY1994 VA-HUD-IA appropriations bill—
P.L. 103-124). The current design, however, can only be viewed as being “enabled” by
Russian participation. It is dependent on Russian Progress vehicles for reboost (to keep the
station from reentering Earth’s atmosphere), on Russian Soyuz spacecraft for emergency
crew return, and on Russia’s Zvezda module for crew quarters (which allows ISS to be
permanently occupied).
Russia’s financial ability to meet its commitments is a major issue. The launch of
Zvezda, the first module Russia had to pay for itself, was more than two years late. (Zarya
was built by Russia, but NASA paid for it.) Since Zvezda’s launch in 2000, Russia has met
its commitments to launch Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, but it is reassessing what other
modules and hardware it will build at its own expense. Russian Aviation and Space Agency
(RAKA, or Rosaviakosmos) director Yuri Koptev estimated in 1997 that Russia would spend
$3.5 billion on its portion of the ISS (later he said $6.2 billion if launch costs were included),
but it is not clear at this point how much money Russia will put into the program. Russia is
interested in commercial arrangements, such as space tourism, and the Enterprise module it
hopes to build with the U.S. company Spacehab (see Operations and Commercialization
Issues
, below). While these activities may be laudable in the context of space
commercialization, they also underscore Russia’s continuing financial challenges.
Political issues also are crucial. The overall relationship between the United States and
Russia is one major factor. Another is the linkage between the space station and Russian
adherence to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) designed to stem proliferation
of ballistic missile technology. Getting Russia to adhere to the MTCR appears to have been
a primary motivation behind the Clinton Administration’s decision to add Russia as a
partner. The United States wanted Russia to restructure a contract with India that would
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have given India advanced rocket engines and associated technology and know-how. The
United States did not object to giving India the engines, but to the technology and know-how.
Russia claimed that restructuring the contract would cost $400 million. The 1993 agreement
to bring Russia into the space station program included the United States paying Russia $400
million for space station cooperation. At the same time, Russia agreed to adhere to the
MTCR. The question is what the United States will do if Russia violates the MTCR. Some
Members of Congress believe Russia already has done so. The Clinton Administration
sanctioned 10 Russian entities for providing technology to Iran. Neither Rosaviakosmos nor
any major Russian ISS contractors or subcontractors were among those sanctioned.
On March 14, 2000, President Clinton signed into law (P.L. 106-178) the Iran
Nonproliferation Act (INA). The law, inter alia, prohibits NASA from making payments
after January 1, 1999 in cash or in kind to Russia for ISS unless Russia takes the necessary
steps to prevent the transfer of weapons of mass destruction and missile systems to Iran and
the President certifies that neither Rosaviakosmos nor any entity reporting to it has made
such transfers for at least one year prior to such determination. Exceptions are made for
payments needed to prevent imminent loss of life by or grievous injury to individuals aboard
ISS (the “crew safety” exception); for payments to construct, test, prepare, deliver, launch,
or maintain Zvezda as long as the funds do not go to an entity that may have proliferated to
Iran and the United States receives goods or services of commensurate value; and the $14
million for hardware needed to dock the U.S. ICM (see above). President Clinton provided
Congress with the required certification with regard to the $14 million on June 29, 2000, but
no certification was forthcoming for the remaining $24 million. Without such a certification,
NASA would only be able to spend more money in Russia for ISS by meeting one of the
remaining exceptions— maintenance of Zvezda (further defined in the law) and crew safety.
At a House International Relations Committee hearing on October 12, 2000, Members
sharply criticized NASA’s legal interpretation of the crew safety exception.
Another benefit cited by the Clinton Administration also is in question—financial
savings. Clinton Administration and NASA officials asserted repeatedly that a joint space
station would accelerate the schedule by 2 years and reduce U.S. costs by $4 billion. This
was later modified to one year and $2 billion, and an April 1, 1994 letter to Congress from
NASA said 15 months and $1.5 billion. NASA officials continued to use the $2 billion
figure thereafter, however. A July 1994 GAO report (GAO/NSIAD 94-248) concluded that
Russian participation would cost NASA $1.8 billion, essentially negating the $2 billion in
expected savings. In 1998, a NASA official conceded that having Russia as a partner added
$1 billion to the cost. Other benefits cited by the Clinton Administration were providing
U.S. financial assistance to Russia as it moves to a market economy, keeping Russian
aerospace workers employed in non-threatening activities, and the emotional impact and
historic symbolism of the two former Cold War adversaries working together in space.
Congressional Action
FY2002
The FY2002 VA-HUD-IA appropriations Act (P.L. 107-73) approved $2.093 billion
for ISS— reducing funding for ISS construction by $75 million, while increasing funding for
space station science by $55 million. The budget figures are difficult to track, however.
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NASA’s original request for ISS was $2.087 billion, all within the Human Space Flight
(HSF) account. That amount was $229 million over what NASA had said the previous year
would be needed for FY2002. In total, the 5-year budget runout shown in the FY2002
budget request included about $1 billion more for FY2002-2006 than had been planned last
year. The increase was offset by redirecting the funding that had been planned for the Crew
Return Vehicle, previously carried in a different part of NASA’s budget.
Subsequently, NASA made revisions to the request. Funding for space station research
($283.6 million) that had been identified in the HSF account was shifted to the Office of
Biological and Physical Sciences (OBPR) in the Science, Aeronautics, and Technology
(SAT) account. NASA also took funds from two HSF subaccounts and added them to ISS:
$8.5 million from the space shuttle for a flight test of the X-38 vehicle, and $19 million from
Investments and Support that would have been used for the HEDS Technology /
Commercialization Initiative. Thus, the revised request for ISS in the HSF account was
$1.83 billion, plus $283.6 million in the SAT account—a total of $2.114 billion. House and
Senate appropriators adopted those revisions in their consideration of the request.
The House passed its version of the FY2002 VA-HUD-IA appropriations bill (H.R.
2620, H. Rept. 107-159) on July 30. A Roemer amendment was defeated (voice vote) that
would have set a cap on space station funding and prohibited NASA from terminating or
deferring certain space station elements; another amendment, to terminate the program, was
withdrawn. As passed, the bill fully funded the ISS request and conditionally added $275
million for a Crew Return Vehicle as recommended by the House Appropriations
Committee. The Senate passed its version of the bill on August 2 (S. 1216, S.Rept. 107-43),
reducing space station funding by $150 million as recommended by the Senate
Appropriations Committee.
The conference report was filed on November 6 (H. Rept. 107-272). Congress added
$55 million to the $283.6 million in the SAT account for space station science; a total of
$338.6 million. The conferees provided $1,960 million in the HSF account for ISS
construction, but that actually was a reduction of $75 million from the request because they
included civil service salaries while NASA does not. The conferees did not adopt the House
position of adding $275 million for a Crew Return Vehicle (CRV), but directed NASA to
spend $40 million on the X-38 program, a precursor to CRV. According to NASA’s FY2003
budget estimate, ISS funding for FY2002 is 2,093 million: $1,722 million for construction
(the $1,960 million that was appropriated, minus civil service costs), $338.6 million for
space station science appropriated by Congress, and another $33 million for space station
science that NASA reallocated in its operating plan.
FY2003
For FY2003, the request for the space station program is $1.839 billion: $1,492 billion
in the HSF account for ISS construction, and $347 million in the SAT account for space
station research. This is $254 million less than the comparable figure for FY2002, reflecting
the fact that much of the hardware has been built, but is $21.5 million higher than what
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NASA had projected last year that it would
Table 1. U.S. Space Station
need in FY2003. The House Science
Funding
Committee reportedly has decided not to
(in $ millions)
introduce a NASA authorization bill for
FY2003 (the current authorization act expires
Fiscal Year
Request
Appropriated
at the end of FY2002). The Senate
1985
150
150
Appropriations Committee reported the
FY2003 VA-HUD-IA appropriations act (S.
1986
230
205
2797, S.Rept. 107-222) on July 25, approving
1987
410
410
the requested amounts.
1988
767
425
International Partners
1989
967
900
1990
2,050
1,750
The Original Partners: Europe,
1991
2,430
1,900
Canada, and Japan
1992
2,029
2,029
Canada, Japan, and most of the 15
1993
2,250
2,100
members of the European Space Agency
1994
2,106
2,106
(ESA) have been participating in the space
station program since it began. Formal
1995
2,113
2,113
agreements were signed in 1988, but had to be
1996
2,115
2,144
revised following Russia’s entry into the
program, and two more European countries
1997
2,149
2,149
also joined in the interim. The revised
1998
2,121
2,441*
agreements were signed on January 29, 1998,
among the partners in the ISS program:
1999
2,270
2,270
United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, and 11
2000
2,483
2,323
European countries—Belgium, Denmark,
France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands,
2001
2,115
2, 115
Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the
2002**
2,114 2,093
United Kingdom. Representatives of the
2003
1,839
various governments signed the government-
to-government level Intergovernmental
The numbers here reflect NASA’s figures for
Agreement (IGA) that governs the program.
“the space station program.” Over the years,
what is included in that definition has changed.
(The United Kingdom signed the IGA, but is
* NASA’s FY1999 budget documents show
not financially participating in the program so
$2.501 billion on the expectation Congress
the number of European countries
would approve additional transfer requests, but it
did not.
participating in the program is variously listed
**See text for NASA’s derivation of this figure.
as 10 or 11.) NASA also signed Memoranda
of Understanding for implementing the
program with its counterpart agencies: the
European Space Agency (ESA), the Canadian
Space Agency (CSA), the Russian space agency (Rosaviakosmos), and the Japanese Science
and Technology Agency. The IGA is a treaty in all the countries except the United States
(where it is an Executive Agreement).
Canada is contributing the Mobile Servicing System (MSS) for assembling and
maintaining the space station. In February 1994, the new prime minister of Canada had
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decided to terminate Canada’s role in the program, but later agreed to reformulate Canada’s
participation instead. The first part of the MSS (the “arm”) was launched in April 2001;
another part, the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator (the “fingers”), is scheduled for late
2003. ESA is building a laboratory module called Columbus and an Automated Transfer
Vehicle (ATV). The major contributors are Germany, France, and Italy. Budgetary
difficulties over the years led ESA to cancel other hardware it was planning. ESA also is
building a cupola (a windowed dome) and paying for Italy to build two of the three “nodes”
(Node 2 and Node 3), in exchange for free shuttle flights to launch its ISS hardware. The
cupola and Node 3 are not included in NASA’s core complete configuration, however. Japan
is building a laboratory module, Kibo (Hope). One part will be pressurized and another part
will be exposed to space for experiments requiring those conditions. Japan also is building
a large centrifuge and a module (“CAM”) to accommodate it for NASA in exchange for free
shuttle flights to launch Kibo. Technical challenges delayed CAM from an anticipated 2006
launch to 2008, but NASA and Japan reportedly reached agreement on modifications that
will accelerate its availability to 2007. In June 2002, however, Japanese officials indicated
that they are seeking ways to reduce their financial commitments to the ISS program. NASA
also has a bilateral agreement with Italy under which Italy is providing three “mini-
pressurized logistics modules” (MPLMs). They are attached to ISS while cargo is
transferred to the station, then filled with refuse or other unwanted material and returned to
Earth. Another bilateral agreement was signed with Brazil in October 1997 for Brazil to
provide payload and logistics hardware.
According to Japan’s space agency, NASDA, Japan’s total spending on ISS is expected
to be $4.8 billion, of which $3.48 billion had been spent by the end of March 2001. CSA
reports that Canada’s total ISS funding is expected to be $1.3 billion (U.S.), of which $1.04
billion (U.S.) had been spent by October 2001. NASA reported in January 2002 that, as of
October 2001, ESA had spent $3.7 billion of an estimated total of $4.8 billion on its ISS
contributions. Russian figures are not available.
Russia
Issues associated with Russia’s participation in ISS are discussed elsewhere. This
section explains Russian space station activities from 1971 to the present. The Soviet Union
launched the world’s first space station, Salyut 1, in 1971 followed by five more Salyuts and
then Mir. At least two other Salyuts failed before they could be occupied. The Soviets
accumulated a great deal of data from the many missions flown to these stations on human
adaptation to weightlessness. The data were often shared with NASA. They also performed
microgravity materials processing research, and astronomical and Earth remote sensing
observations. Importantly, they gained considerable experience in operating space stations.
Russia’s most recent space station was Mir, a modular space station that was built and
operated between 1986 and 2001. Crews were ferried back and forth to Mir using Soyuz
spacecraft (reminiscent of Apollo capsules). A Soyuz spacecraft was always attached to Mir
when a crew was aboard in case of an emergency, and Soyuz capsules now are used as Crew
Return Vehicles, or lifeboats, for ISS.
Crews occupied Mir from 1986-2000. For almost ten of those years (1989-1999), Mir
was continuously occupied by crews on a rotating basis. Although occasionally crews
stayed for very long periods of time to study human reaction to long duration spaceflight,
typically crews remained for 5-6 months and then were replaced by a new set of cosmonauts.
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The longest continuous amount of time spent by a single individual on Mir was 14 months.
From 1995-1998, seven Americans participated in long duration (up to 6 months) missions
aboard Mir, and nine space shuttle missions docked with the space station. Individuals from
Japan, Britain, Austria, Germany, France, and the Slovak Republic also paid for visits to Mir.
Russia deorbited Mir into the Pacific Ocean on March 23, 2001.
Issues For Congressional Consideration
Rationale
When NASA, the Reagan Administration, and Congress considered the rationale for
building a space station in the early 1980s, NASA summed it up by calling a space station
“the next logical step” in the space program. In many respects, that is the fundamental
rationale for the space station program. Human exploration of space appeals to what many
believe is an innate desire to push the frontiers of human experience. They view the space
station as the next step in America’s—and humanity’s—inexorable desire to explore new
worlds. Life sciences research on the effects of long durations in weightlessness on human
physiology is considered by some as a prerequisite to sending people to Mars, research for
which a space station is required. Other supporters believe materials research conducted on
a space station will lead to new profitable industries, although this rationale was dismissed
by the White House science office and the National Academy of Sciences in 1991.
Human spaceflight is felt by many in the space community to be the heart and soul of
the space program. For them, the debate over the space station is a debate over America’s
future in space and NASA’s purpose. A rejection of the program would be viewed as an
abandonment of the vision they perceive as inherent in a strong national program of civilian
space activities. As a visible symbol of America’s technological prowess, human spaceflight
is often perceived as a centerpiece of an image of American preeminence.
This somewhat romantic view is in stark contrast to those who view human exploration
of space as, at best, a waste of money, and at worst, an unnecessary exposure of humans to
the hazards of space travel. These observers argue that there is much yet to explore here on
Earth, and robotic spacecraft should be used to explore the heavens for safety and
cost-effectiveness reasons. They see the Apollo, space shuttle, and space station programs
as successive drains on resources that could be better used for robotic space activities, or
non-space related activities.
Cost and Cost Effectiveness
Cost effectiveness involves what can be accomplished with the facility that is ultimately
built versus its cost. In 1993, NASA said it would cost $17.4 billion to build the U.S. portion
of the space station. That rose to $24.1-$26.4 billion by early 2000, with $5 billion more in
cost growth announced in 2001. Cost estimates for the earlier Freedom design had risen
significantly as the years passed, and with each Freedom redesign, the amount of science
diminished. Many wondered whether the same fate awaited ISS. In FY1996, FY1997, and
FY1998 NASA transferred a total of $462 million from the space station science accounts
into space station construction. In response to the cost growth revealed in 2001, NASA
reduced the ISS research budget by 37.5% (FY2002-2006) and indefinitely deferred building
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hardware that would enable six or seven crew members to live aboard the station. As
discussed, the smaller crew size will reduce the amount of research that can be conducted,
since 2 ½ crew are needed to operate and maintain the station, leaving only ½ of one person’s
time available for research.
Operations and Commercialization Issues, Including Transhab
As ISS construction continues, attention is turning to who should operate the facility and
how to encourage commercial use of it. NASA supports the concept of space station
commercialization, both in terms of station operations and getting the private sector to use
research facilities on ISS on a commercial basis. In 1998, NASA proposed creation of a non-
governmental organization (NGO) to oversee research on the space station, similar to the
Space Telescope Science Institute at Johns Hopkins University that operates the Hubble Space
Telescope. The conference report on the FY2002 VA-HUD-IA appropriations bill (H. Rept.
107-272) prohibits NASA from finalizing any such agreement before December 1, 2002.
The NGO would report to NASA. Others want the private sector, not the government,
to manage and operate the space station. Still others think there is a role for the private sector
in building, not just operating, the space station. In December 1999, the U.S. company
Spacehab announced agreement with the Russian company Energia to build a commercial
module to attach to the Russian part of ISS. The companies planned to provide space-
originated news, information, education, entertainment, and business advertising and
promotion, broadcasting from the module for viewing on television and the Internet. In
March 2001, however, they announced that they no longer expected substantial revenue from
those activities, and would wait until a space station partner other than Russia committed to
leasing the module before they construct it. On June 2, 2000, NASA announced a deal with
DREAMTiME, a company that said it would, among other things, broadcast multimedia
images from ISS and make documentaries about its construction. After two years, the
company had not met the terms of the contract and NASA terminated it in June 2002.
NASA also explored whether the private sector would build an inflatable module called
“Transhab” to replace the Habitation Module as the long term crew quarters. Supporters
argued it could be a prototype for a craft to take crews to Mars. Inflatable modules are an
innovative concept, making reliable cost estimating difficult. Concerned that it might add
costs to the ISS program, in the FY2000-2000 NASA authorization act, P.L. 106-391,
Congress prohibited NASA from spending funds on Transhab, but said NASA could lease
such a module if the private sector built it, with conditions.
Language in the FY2000 VA-HUD-IA appropriations act (P.L.106-74) permitted NASA
to conduct a demonstration commercialization program for 5 years. Receipts collected from
commercial use of ISS would be used first to offset costs incurred by NASA in support of
commercialization, with any remainder retained by NASA for promoting further ISS
commercialization. NASA released a pricing policy for use of ISS by commercial entities in
February 2000. The chairs of the House and Senate Committees that authorize NASA
activities (House Science and Senate Commerce) both objected to including the language
because of concern that it would allow NASA to pick and choose winners. The FY2000-2002
NASA authorization act (P.L. 106-391) limits the duration of the project to 3 years.
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Another issue, that now seems to be resolved, is whether “tourists” should be allowed
aboard ISS. The Russians launched American millionaire Dennis Tito to ISS in April 2001
after months of strenuous objections from NASA and other space station partners. They
argued that he was insufficiently trained and the space station was not yet ready to
accommodate nonprofessional astronauts. Days before the Russians were to launch Mr. Tito
to ISS, NASA and the other partners agreed to it on the condition that guidelines be developed
on necessary training before other “spaceflight participants” visit ISS. The guidelines were
released in January 2002 and another spaceflight participant (South African Mark
Shuttleworth) flew to ISS. U.S. entertainer Lance Bass, of the band *NSYNC, may be next,
participating in an October 2002 mission. Although contractual arrangements between Mr.
Bass and the Russians have not been finalized yet, NASA and the other ISS partners have
approved his participation in the flight in accordance with the guidelines. H.R. 2443 would
facilitate the emergence of a space tourism industry, but prohibit the U.S. portion of ISS from
being visited or occupied by anyone not engaged in supporting official business of the United
States or the conduct of scientific or engineering R&D, and those authorized by relevant
international agreements, except in emergency situations.
Issues Related to Russia’s Participation
The risks and benefits of Russia’s participation in the program already have been
discussed. A continuing issue is how to cope with the fact that the Russian government may
not provide the funding needed to fulfill its commitments to the program. Although U.S.
funding uncertainty is the focus of attention today, Russia’s financial circumstances remain
a challenge as well. NASA’s decision to cancel the Propulsion Module ensures ISS
dependance on Russia for reboost (except for the very limited reboost capabilities of the U.S.
space shuttle) until Europe’s ATV is available (scheduled for 2004). With the indefinite
deferral of the Crew Return Vehicle, ISS will remain dependent on Russia for “lifeboat”
spacecraft indefinitely. As discussed earlier, the Iran Nonproliferation Act (INA) prohibits
U.S. payments to Russia for ISS, with some exceptions, unless the government of Russia
prevents Russian nuclear and missile technology from reaching Iran. The key question is
what will happen if Russia insists it cannot fund reboost or lifeboat missions yet NASA is not
permitted to transfer money to Russia for such missions because Russia is not in compliance
with INA.
LEGISLATION
H.R. 2443 (Lampson)
To promote the development of a U.S. space tourism industry. Introduced July 10, 2001;
referred to the Committee on Science, the Committee on Ways and Means.
S. 2797 (Mikulski)
FY2003 VA-HUD-IA appropriations act (includes NASA). Reported from Senate
Appropriations Committee July 25 (S.Rept. 107-222).
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