Order Code RS20210
Updated April 2, 2002
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Trade Adjustment Assistance for Firms:
Economic, Program, and Policy Issues
J. F. Hornbeck
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
While many policymakers believe that free trade provides benefits to all trading
partners, reducing barriers to trade forces firms and industries in all countries to adjust
to stiffer global competition. For some, the adjustment process can be difficult and
Congress, in recognizing this problem, has authorized programs to assist trade-impacted
firms, industries, and workers. This report focuses on the trade adjustment assistance
program for firms and industries, which provides technical assistance to help them
develop strategies to remain competitive in the changing international economy.1
Although a small program, it remains controversial. The TAA legislation expired on
January 10, 2002, but the programs are functioning with FY2002 appropriations pending
congressional action on reauthorization. This report will be updated periodically.
Economics of Trade Adjustment
Economists tend to agree that in defining the rules of exchange among countries,
freer trade is preferable to protectionism. The theory of comparative advantage suggests
that freer trade leads to mutual gains for countries because through exchange, they can
specialize in producing those goods at which they are relatively more efficient, while
trading for those at which they are relatively less so. Firm productivity increases through
trade by reallocating resources to their more efficient use, while both firms and consumers
gain by having a wider variety of goods to choose from at lower prices.
It is also true that as countries adopt freer trade policies, often through negotiated
trade agreements, economies must adjust to increased trade, creating both “winners and
losers.” Some firms and industries will grow as they expand into overseas markets,
whereas others will contract, merge, or perhaps even fail when faced with increased
competition. While the adjustment process may be healthy from a macroeconomic
1 For a discussion of worker assistance and current legislation, see the CRS trade electronic
briefing book: [http://www.congress.gov/brbk/html/ebtra1.shtml]
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

---

CRS-2
perspective, much like market-driven adjustments that occur in the absence of trade (e.g.
changing technology), it can be a rather harsh reality for many firms.
Critics of free trade agreements often highlight the adjustment costs of reducing trade
barriers. To avoid business closures and layoffs, trade-impacted firms often seek to
weaken, if not defeat, trade liberalizing legislation. This makes economic sense from the
perspective of affected industries, firms, and workers, but economists argue that in the
long run it can be costly for the country as a whole. The costs of protection arise because
competition is suppressed, reducing pressure on firms to innovate, operate more
efficiently, and become lower cost producers.2 The brunt of these costs falls to consumers,
both individuals and businesses, who must pay higher prices.
One way to balance the gains of freer trade that are realized broadly throughout the
economy, with the costs that tend to be more concentrated, is to address the needs of firms
negatively affected. This can be done by legislating trade adjustment assistance (TAA).
Supporters justify TAA policy on grounds that: 1) it helps those who are hurt by trade
liberalization (the “losers”); 2) the economic costs are less than protectionism and can be
borne by society as a whole (“the winners”) and; 3) given rigidities in the adjustment
process, it helps redeploy economic resources more quickly, thereby reducing productivity
losses and related public sector costs (e.g. unemployment compensation).
Firm And Industry Trade Adjustment Assistance
Congress first authorized TAA in Title III of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (P.L.
87-794) and has extended it repeatedly. TAA legislation technically expired on January
10, 2002, but TAA programs continue to function with FY2002 appropriations, pending
congressional action on reauthorization. The Economic Development Administration
(EDA) of the U.S. Department of Commerce administers the firm and industry TAA
program. It provides technical assistance to help trade-impacted firms (focused on
manufacturers) make strategic adjustments necessary to remain competitive in a global
economy. Originally, TAA also included loans and loan guarantees, but Congress
eliminated all direct financial assistance in 1986 because of federal budgetary cutbacks and
concern over the program’s high default rates and limited effectiveness.
To receive assistance a firm must first be certified as eligible by demonstrating: 1)
a “significant” loss or threatened loss of employees; 2) a decrease in sales or production;
and 3) that increased imports “contributed importantly” to both the layoffs and fall in sales
or production. Once certified, the firm has two years to apply for assistance in developing
and/or implementing its adjustment proposal. Approval depends on EDA’s finding that
the adjustment proposal: 1) is likely “to materially contribute” to the economic adjustment
of the firm; 2) considers the interests of the firm’s workers; and 3) demonstrates that the
firm will use its own resources for adjustment.3
2 For cost estimates of protection, see: Hufbauer, Gary Clyde and Kimberly Ann Elliot. Measuring
the Costs of Protection in the United States. Washington, D.C., Institute for International
Economics, 1994.
3 P.L. 93-618, Sections 251 and 252, as amended.

---

CRS-3
EDA can provide technical assistance to a firm for preparation of the petition for
eligibility certification and to a certified eligible firm for developing the economic
adjustment proposal or implementing the proposal. In practice, this technical assistance
is provided through one of the 12 Trade Adjustment Assistance Centers (TAACs), which
operate as non-federal consultants. They provide technical assistance to firms from the
initial certification process through implementation of the adjustment proposal.4
As seen in table 1, all of EDA’s TAA appropriations since 1995 have been used to
support the TAACs. In some years, the TAAC’s funding has been augmented by
Department of Defense appropriations through the Defense Adjustment Assistance
Program (DAAP). In addition, for fiscal years 1991-1994, grants were made to specific
industry representatives and research groups. These included the American Electronics
Association (Europe and Japan offices); the Semiconductor Industry Association; the
Motor Equipment Manufacturers Association; the Gear Research Institute; the American
Foundrymen’s Society; and the University of Texas. No funds go directly to firms.
Table 1. Firm Trade Adjustment Assistance:
Appropriations, Fiscal Years 1995-2003
($ millions)
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
#2003
EDA
10.0
8.5
8.5
9.5
9.5
10.5
10.5
10.5
13.0
DoD
0
0.7
1.6
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.2
0
0
Total
10.0
9.2
10.1
11.0
11.0
11.0
10.7
10.5
13.0
# Bush Administration request for fiscal year 2003.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce. Economic Development Administration (EDA).
The TAACs are staffed by professionals with broad business expertise who can help
firms develop “recovery strategies” and also identify financial resources. They are, in
effect, federally supported consultants specializing in business turnarounds. TAACs focus
their efforts on certifying eligible firms and devising targeted adjustment strategies, which
are usually implemented by private consultants on a contractual basis. EDA is statutorily
restricted to cover no more than 75% of adjustment proposal costs, but beginning in fiscal
year 1996, EDA reduced this to 50%, capped at $75,000 per firm.5
TAACs develop business recovery strategies specific to the needs of each firm, but
competing with lower-priced imports typically involves making adjustments in one or more
common areas. First, since firms must be experiencing falling sales to participate, TAACs
often focus on marketing or sales strategies to identify new markets, new products,
promotional initiatives, and export opportunities. Second, production inefficiencies are
corrected to reduce firm costs and improve price competitiveness. Third, TAACs can
develop debt restructuring strategies and frequently act as intermediaries in finding new
4 P.L. 93-618, Section 253, as amended and U.S. Department of Commerce. Economic
Development Administration. The Trade Adjustment Assistance Program. May 1999.
5 Ibid., and discussions with EDA staff.

---

CRS-4
sources of business financing through either government agencies (U.S. Small Business
Administration) or private financial institutions.
Table 2 summarizes the disposition of TAA petitions. For fiscal years 1996-2001,
of the 1,073 petitions for certification on file, 1,029 or 96% were certified as eligible to
receive assistance. During this period, 762 firms filed trade adjustment proposals.
Numbers for these two categories do not match on a fiscal year basis because there is an
average time lapse of half a year between being certified and filing an adjustment proposal.
Table 2. Disposition of Trade Adjustment Assistance
Petitions for Certification and Adjustment Proposals,
Fiscal Years 1996-2001
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Average
Petitions for Certification
Total
159
171
178
179
203
185
179
Certified
148
159
167
175
201
179
172
Other#
11
12
11
4
2
6
7
Adjustment Proposals
Received*
107
120
134
141
147
113
127
Accepted
101
123
128
149
139
118
126
Rejected
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pending
6
3
9
1
9
4
5
Avg Firm
$8.1
$6.8
$7.3
$9.9
$10.8
$12.8
$9.3
Sales ($mil)
Avg Firm
87
86
94
78
126
250
120
Employees
Avg TAA
$48,600
$48,450
$57,000
$54,060
$52,000
$50,440
$51,758
Per Firm
# Other = withdrawn, terminated, or rejected.
* The number of adjustment proposals accepted, rejected, and pending do not necessarily sum to the
amount received for any given fiscal year due to carry overs from previous years.
Source: EDA, TAA Adjustment Proposal and Certification Fact Sheet.
Table 2 also shows that there has been a very high adjustment proposal acceptance
rate due, in part, to a preliminary review process that eliminates incomplete or ineligible
applications. Most firms receiving assistance are small to medium-size manufacturing
businesses. For the six-year period summarized in table 2, firms had an average $9.3
million in sales and 120 employees. The mean value of the trade adjustment assistance
provided by the TAACs was $51,758 per firm.
Historically, program evaluation has been limited, although there is considerable
anecdotal evidence indicating that TAA has helped many firms survive that were seriously
threatened by imports. The Urban Institute completed the most recent comprehensive
evaluation of the program in 1998. It found the TAA program effective in helping

---

CRS-5
“distressed manufacturing enterprises respond to foreign imports.” Specifically, the study
concluded that five years after certification, eligible firms that sought TAA had a higher
survival rate (84%) than those eligible firms that did not ultimately pursue assistance
(70%). This amounts to a termination (firm either merged or failed) rate for assisted firms
of about half that of unassisted firms. Also, assisted firms on average added 4.2% more
employees and had sales growth of 34% compared to a 5.3% loss of employees and 16%
sales growth for eligible firms that had not received assistance.6
This study was careful to include a control group in making comparisons. By
including data on those firms that entered the process and became eligible for assistance,
but declined to pursue TAA, a comparison could be made between two similar groups of
firms that took different paths. This is a useful distinction and lends credibility to the
study’s overall positive conclusions. Still, given the financial commitment needed to
participate, it is likely that many eligible firms that did not pursue TAA may not have had
the financial ability to do so. If so, it is likely the control group may include a larger
proportion of the most financially distressed firms and even in this group, there was a 70%
survival rate after five years. This would suggest that the firm TAA program may help at
the margin, but without it, between 70% and 86% of firms would still adjust on their own.
Nonetheless, the report does provide some indication that the TAACs may be helping
trade-impacted businesses become more competitive.7
The Urban Institute report pointed to specific characteristics of the TAA program
that were particularly effective including its unbiased diagnostic approach and competitive
bidding process for consulting services, its success in targeting viable firms and ensuring
they are financially and managerially committed to the adjustment strategy, and its
customized, broad-based, and heavily subsidized assistance package. On the other hand,
the firm TAA program was criticized for not reaching all trade-impacted firms, being
limited and backlogged in responding to eligible firms by funding restrictions, and having
a stringent and cumbersome certification process that needed simplifying. Also, TAACs
were found to have inconsistent cost and fee structures and were encouraged to leverage
other business assistance services.8
Economic and Policy Issues
By any measure, firm and industry trade adjustment assistance is a small federal
program; it remains, nonetheless, controversial. Critics point to fundamental arguments
opposing TAA that have been debated since before the program was initiated in 1962.
First, given that competition resulting from trade liberalization is not considered “unfair
6 U.S. Department of Commerce. Economic Development Administration. Effective Aid to Trade-
Impacted Manufacturers: An Evaluation of the Trade Adjustment Assistance Program. Prepared
by the Urban Institute, Washington, D.C., November 1998. pp. i, 8-14. The study, in praising the
firm TAA program, expresses a strong philosophical bias for assistance to trade-impacted firms,
even to the point of considering increasing tariffs or other trade limiting remedies. See p. 57.
7 The study also attempts to control for industry, regional, and national economic conditions that
can be factors affecting firm recovery or failure. Ibid., pp. 13-17.
8 For more details on cost-benefit analysis and program design improvements see: Ibid., pp. iv-vi,
8-9, and 32-48.

---

CRS-6
trade,” why should the federal government be involved? Second, why should federal
assistance be necessary for adjustment to trade competition when there is no similar
assistance for adjustment to domestic competitive pressures? Third, should not this
adjustment simply be accepted as part of a dynamic market economy working to allocate
resources more efficiently and in the country’s long-term interests?
Proponents of the program argue that TAA is only modestly funded and provides
benefits to firms, owners, managers, and workers that are many times the value of the
federal expenditures. Also, if changes in national trade policy have altered the rules under
which businesses compete, does not the federal government have some responsibility for
assisting firms that bear the costs of adjustment? Finally, a point in favor of firm TAA is
that it focuses on adjustment, not long-term financial assistance. Firms must commit their
own resources and have every incentive to make adjustment to ensure their very survival.
They are not faced with the potential for dependency on long-term cash payments, which
critics charge is a problem with some federal assistance programs.
In addition to purely economic reasoning, political considerations also surround the
TAA debate. Historically, Congress has accepted, with some reservations, that freer trade
is in the long-term interests of the United States. While those skeptical of trade
liberalization may support TAA for the assistance it provides to affected workers and
firms, proponents of freer trade may embrace TAA for its political expedience. To the
extent that firm and industry TAA can address some of the concerns of adversely affected
firms, it may support trade liberalization as a continuing foundation of U.S. trade policy
and temper calls for relief through raising tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions to trade.
Advocates of trade liberalization may find support for firm TAA as compelling from a
cost-benefit perspective if it leads to broader acceptance of trade opening legislation.
TAA authorizing legislation expired on January 10, 2002, but the programs are
funded through fiscal year 2002. Both the House and the Senate have acted on
reauthorizing legislation, but the issue has become part of the broader trade promotion
authority (TPA) debate, delaying final action. Congress appears to recognize a continuing
need to provide some help for those workers and firms that are adversely affected by trade.
A major question to be resolved is the size and scope of such assistance, particularly in
light of renewed interested in multilateral (the Doha World Trade Organization round),
regional (the Free Trade Area of the Americas), and numerous bilateral (Singapore, Chile,
Central America) trade agreements.

---