Order Code IB92099
CRS Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Nuclear Weapons:
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
Updated March 20, 2002
Jonathan Medalia
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
The Senate and the CTBT
History
National Positions on Testing and the CTBT
The CTBT: Negotiations and Key Provisions
Preparing for Entry into Force
Stockpile Stewardship
CTBT Pros and Cons
CHRONOLOGY
FOR ADDITIONAL READING
Selected World Wide Web Sites

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Nuclear Weapons:
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
SUMMARY
A comprehensive test ban treaty, or
defeat, the treaty moved to the Senate’s exec-
CTBT, is the oldest item on the nuclear arms
utive calendar; at the end of the 106th Con-
control agenda. Three treaties currently limit
gress, it moved to the Senate Foreign Rela-
testing to underground only, with a maximum
tions Committee’s calendar. It would require
force equal to 150,000 tons of TNT. Accord-
a two-thirds Senate vote to send the treaty
ing to the Natural Resources Defense Council,
back to the President for disposal or to give
the United States conducted 1,030 nuclear
advice and consent for ratification; few if any
tests, the Soviet Union 715, the United King-
observers see either event as likely in early
dom 45, France 210, and China 45. The last
2002.
U.S. test was held in 1992; the last U.K. test,
in 1991. Russia claims it has not conducted
In January 2002, the Administration, in
nuclear tests since 1991, though some suspect
briefings on the Nuclear Posture Review,
it may have conducted several low-yield tests
indicated that it continues to oppose the
since then.
CTBT, continues to adhere to the test morato-
rium, plans to reduce the time between a
Since 1997, the United States has held 16
decision to conduct a nuclear test and the test
“subcritical experiments” at the Nevada Test
itself, is considering (among other options)
Site to study the behavior of plutonium under
modifying existing warheads for use against
pressures generated by explosives. It asserts
hard and deeply-buried targets, has not ruled
they do not violate the CTBT because they
out resumed testing, and has no plans to test.
cannot produce a self-sustaining nuclear fission
Critics raised concerns about the implications
chain reaction. The most recent was held
of these policies for testing and new weapons.
February 14, 2002. Russia has reportedly
conducted some since 1998, including several
Congress continues to consider the
in fall 2000.
Stockpile Stewardship Program, which seeks
to maintain nuclear weapons without testing.
In May 1998, India and Pakistan each
The FY2002 budget request for the program
announced several nuclear tests and declared
(Weapons Activities) was $5.300 billion; the
themselves nuclear weapons states. Each
final appropriation was $5.429 billion. The
declared a moratorium on further tests, but
FY2003 request is $5.869 billion.
separately stated, in the summer of 2000, that
the time was not right to sign the CTBT.
A conference on facilitating entry into
force of the CTBT, called by the U.N. Secre-
The U.N. General Assembly adopted the
tary-General, was held November 11-13,
CTBT in September 1996. As of March 14,
2001, at U.N. headquarters in New York. The
2002, 165 states had signed it and 90, includ-
United States did not send a delegation. A
ing Russia, had ratified. In 1997, President
State Department official said, “This is a
Clinton transmitted the CTBT to the Senate.
meeting for ratifying states and we’ve made it
On October 13, 1999, the Senate rejected the
clear we’re not going to ratify.”
treaty, 48 for, 51 against, 1 present. With the
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
On March 14, San Marino became the 90th nation to ratify the CTBT. On February 14,
the Department of Energy conducted its 16th subcritical experiment at the Nevada Test Site,
the first with U.K. participation. On January 9, the Administration presented a briefing on
the Nuclear Posture Review (NPR), which dealt in part with issues related to nuclear testing.
This briefing and subsequent information on the NPR have led to speculation on the
prospects for resumed U.S. nuclear testing and debate over the desirability of that course
of action.
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
The Senate and the CTBT
On September 22, 1997, President Clinton submitted the CTBT to the Senate. On
January 21, 1998, Senator Jesse Helms wrote to the President, “the CTBT is very low on the
[Senate Foreign Relations] Committee’s list of priorities.” President Clinton, in his State of
the Union address of January 27, asked the Senate to approve the treaty in 1998. The Indian
and Pakistani tests clouded ratification prospects, shattering the international “norm” against
testing. Senator Trent Lott said on May 29 that the tests showed “the irrelevance of U.S.
action on the [CTBT] ... American policy should shift from a misguided focus on an
unverifiable and ineffective treaty that precludes maintaining the safety and reliability of the
U.S. nuclear deterrent to a sustained effort to build international support for de-escalating the
nuclear arms race in Asia.” Senator Helms said, “India’s actions demonstrate that the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, from a non-proliferation standpoint, is scarcely more than
a sham. ... I, for one, cannot and will not agree to any treaty which would legitimize de facto
India’s possession of these weapons, just so long as they are not caught further testing them.”
President Clinton and Senator Helms reiterated their 1998 CTBT positions in January
1999. The President, in his State of the Union address, asked the Senate to approve the
treaty in 1999. Senator Helms wanted the Administration to submit ABM Treaty
modifications and the 1997 Kyoto environmental treaty to the Senate, both of which might
be rejected, as part of an arrangement to consider the CTBT. A letter by all 45 Democratic
Senators to Senator Helms in July 1999, asking for the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
to hold hearings on the treaty, met a negative response. Of concern for CTBT supporters was
that only States that have ratified the treaty may participate in the conference on expediting
entry into force, scheduled for October 1999; others would have observer status. On
September 8, Senator Dorgan pledged to “plant myself on the [Senate] floor and object” until
the treaty is brought to the floor for debate and a vote.
On September 30, 1999, Senator Lott offered a unanimous-consent request to discharge
the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from considering the treaty, to have ten hours of
debate beginning October 6, and then vote. An agreement was reached to begin up to ten
hours of general debate on October 8, and have two amendments (each of which could
contain multiple provisions), one by each side, with up to four hours of debate on each. The
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vote on the treaty would be held October 12 or 13. The Senate Armed Services Committee
held hearings October 5-7; the Foreign Relations Committee held a hearing October 7.
It quickly developed that the treaty was far short of the votes for approval, leading many
on both sides to seek to delay a vote. As the vote was scheduled by unanimous consent, and
several Senators opposed delaying the vote, CTBT activity focused on finding a way to obtain
unanimity or to delay a vote short of unanimous consent. Republicans demanded as
conditions for delaying a vote that, as Senator Helms said on October 6, “[The President]
must request in writing two things: one, that the treaty be withdrawn; and two, that it not be
considered by the Senate for the duration of his presidency.” President Clinton said on
October 8, “I hope that the Senate will reach an agreement to delay the vote” but refused to
meet the two conditions. On October 11, he wrote to ask for a delay, but would not rule out
asking for the treaty’s consideration later. The next day, however, Senator Daschle
reportedly was willing to pledge not to seek a vote on the CTBT again in the 106th Congress,
barring “extraordinary circumstances,” to try to meet Republican demands. On October 12,
Republicans, in caucus, agreed to oppose a possible Democratic motion to block
consideration of the treaty by pulling it from the executive calendar, which would require a
simple majority. On October 13, 62 Senators wrote to Senators Lott and Daschle to urge
them to defer the vote. It was not possible, however, to reach unanimous consent for that
course of action, and a motion to move to the executive calendar was approved, 55-45, on
a party line vote. (Rejecting that motion would have blocked consideration of the treaty.)
The vote was held October 13, rejecting the treaty, 48 for, 51 against, and 1 present. With
the defeat, the treaty moved to the Senate’s executive calendar, and at the end of the 106th
Congress it moved to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee’s calendar.
History
A ban on nuclear testing is the oldest item on the arms control agenda. Efforts to curtail
tests have been made since the 1940s. In the 1950s, the United States and Soviet Union
conducted hundreds of hydrogen bomb tests. The radioactive fallout from these tests spurred
worldwide protest. These pressures, plus a desire to reduce U.S.-Soviet confrontation after
the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, led to the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned
nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, in space, and under water. The Threshold Test Ban
Treaty, signed in 1974, banned underground nuclear weapons tests having an explosive force
of more than 150 kilotons, the equivalent of 150,000 tons of TNT, ten times the force of the
Hiroshima bomb. The Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty, signed in 1976, extended the
150-kiloton limit to nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes. President Carter did not pursue
ratification of these treaties, preferring to negotiate a comprehensive test ban treaty, or
CTBT, a ban on all nuclear explosions. When agreement seemed near, however, he pulled
back, bowing to arguments that continued testing was needed to maintain reliability of
existing weapons, to develop new weapons, and for other purposes. President Reagan raised
concerns about U.S. ability to monitor the two unratified treaties and late in his term started
negotiations on new verification protocols. These two treaties were ratified in 1990.
With the end of the Cold War, the need for improved warheads dropped and pressures
for a CTBT grew. The U.S.S.R. and France began nuclear test moratoria in October 1990
and April 1992, respectively. In early 1992, many in Congress favored a one-year test
moratorium. The effort led to the Hatfield amendment to the FY1993 Energy and Water
Development Appropriations Bill, which banned testing before July 1, 1993, set conditions
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on a resumption of testing, and banned testing after September 1996 unless another nation
tested. President Bush signed the bill into law (P.L. 102-377) October 2, 1992.
National Positions on Testing and the CTBT
United States: Under the Hatfield amendment, President Clinton had to decide whether
or not to ask Congress to resume testing. On July 3, 1993, he announced his decision. He
noted that “[a] test ban can strengthen our efforts worldwide to halt the spread of nuclear
technology in weapons,” and that “the nuclear weapons in the United States arsenal are safe
and reliable.” While testing offered advantages for safety, reliability, and test ban readiness,
“the price we would pay in conducting those tests now by undercutting our own
nonproliferation goals and ensuring that other nations would resume testing outweighs these
benefits.” Therefore, he (1) extended the moratorium at least through September 1994; (2)
called on other nations to extend their moratoria; (3) said he would direct DOE to “prepare
to conduct additional tests while seeking approval to do so from Congress” if another nation
tested; (4) promised to “explore other means of maintaining our confidence in the safety, the
reliability and the performance of our own weapons”; and (5) pledged to refocus the nuclear
weapons laboratories toward technology for nuclear nonproliferation and arms control
verification. He extended the moratorium twice more; on January 30, 1995, the
Administration announced his decision to extend the moratorium until a CTBT entered into
force, assuming a treaty was signed by September 30, 1996. The treaty opened for signature
on September 24, 1996, in effect extending the moratorium indefinitely.
With the treaty’s defeat in the Senate, President Clinton, in his State of the Union
Address on January 27, 2000, said, “I hope we can have a constructive bipartisan dialogue
this year to build a consensus which will lead eventually to the ratification” of the treaty. The
next day, Secretary of State Albright announced that Gen. John Shalikashvili (ret.) would
“spearhead the Administration’s effort to achieve bipartisan support for ratification...” He
issued a report on findings and recommendations on the treaty on January 4, 2001. He
concluded, “I believe that it is very much in our national interest to secure [certain] benefits
through entry into force of the Test Ban Treaty. If this opportunity is lost, the United States’
ability to lead an effective global campaign against nuclear proliferation will be severely
damaged.” Senator Kyl was quoted as responding that the report “simply rehashed the same
flawed arguments that failed to persuade the Senate to support the treaty.”
The Bush Administration takes a different position on the CTBT and nuclear testing.
On January 17, 2001, Colin Powell, then nominee to be Secretary of State, told the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee that the Administration would not ask for CTBT ratification in
this session of Congress. On March 30, John Bolton, at his confirmation hearing before that
committee as nominee to be Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International
Security Affairs, declined to support U.S. funding for the International Monitoring System
(see below) pending completion of the Administration’s strategic review. On June 5, Jack
Crouch, nominee for Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy, testified
before the Senate Armed Services Committee, “I think that considering the resumption of
[nuclear] testing is something that the Administration ought to consider.” A New York Times
article of July 7 reported that the Administration “has been examining ways to escape
permanently” from the CTBT, but “State Department lawyers told the White House that a
president cannot withdraw a treaty from the Senate once it has been presented for approval.”
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Withdrawing the treaty or giving advice and consent to ratification would require a two-thirds
vote by the Senate. Few if any observers see either course as likely. Accordingly, the
President has reportedly decided to let the treaty “languish” in the Senate while trying to
“persuade the treaty’s allies to acknowledge that the pact is effectively dead.” As a further
sign of the Administration’s opposition to the treaty, the United States did not send a
delegation to a conference held November 11-13 at U.N. headquarters to expedite the treaty’s
entry into force. Explained one senior State Department official, as quoted in the Washington
Post of November 12, “This is a meeting for ratifying states and we’ve made it clear we’re
not going to ratify.”
The Nuclear Posture Review and Nuclear Testing: In the FY2001 National Defense
Authorization Act (P.L. 106-398, Sec. 1041), Congress directed the Secretary of Defense,
in consultation with the Secretary of Energy, to review nuclear policy, strategy, arms control
objectives, and the forces, stockpile, and nuclear weapons complex needed to implement U.S.
strategy. Although the resulting Nuclear Posture Review is classified, J.D. Crouch, Assistant
Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy, presented an unclassified briefing
[http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jan2002/t01092002_t0109npr.html] on it on January 9,
2002, dealing in part with the CTBT and nuclear testing. He stated there would be “no
change in the Administration’s policy at this point on nuclear testing. We continue to oppose
CTBT ratification. We also continue to adhere to a testing moratorium.” Further, “DOE is
planning on accelerating its test-readiness program,” referring to the time needed between a
decision to test and the conduct of a test, currently 24 to 36 months. He discussed new
weapons. “At this point, there are no recommendations in the report about developing new
nuclear weapons. ... we are trying to look at a number of initiatives. One would be to modify
an existing weapon, to give it greater capability against ... hard targets and deeply-buried
targets. And we’re also looking at non-nuclear ways that we might be able to deal with those
problems.” President Bush has left open the door to resumed nuclear testing. A Washington
Post article of January 10, 2002, quoted White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer as saying
that the President has not ruled out testing “to make sure the stockpile, particularly as it is
reduced, is reliable and safe. So he has not ruled out testing in the future, but there are no
plans to do so.”
Critics expressed concern about the implications of these policies for testing and new
weapons. Daryl Kimball, executive director of the Arms Control Association, said that since
increasing funding for test readiness “would amount to giving prior approval for testing, the
debate [in Congress] would be substantial.” A statement by Physicians for Social
Responsibility said, “The Administration’s plan ... would streamline our nuclear arsenal into
a war-fighting force, seek the opportunity to design and build new nuclear weapons, and
abandon a ten-year-old moratorium on nuclear weapons testing.”
The Nuclear Posture Review, if fully implemented, could add new tasks to the nuclear
weapons complex and augment existing ones. Work would be needed at Nevada Test Site
to accelerate test readiness. Pantex Plant would see an increase in dismantlement or storage
of weapons, and disposition of some components and materials from dismantled weapons.
Other plants would be involved in dismantlement, disposition, or storage of components. The
labs would design any new weapons or modify existing ones. Nuclear tests would draw
mainly on the resources of the labs and Nevada Test Site. Production of new weapons or of
components for modified ones would draw on the resources of the entire weapons complex.
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United Kingdom: The United Kingdom cannot test because it has conducted all its
nuclear tests for several decades at the Nevada Test Site and does not have its own test site.
Its last test was held in 1991. Britain and France became the first of the original five nuclear
weapon states to ratify the CTBT, depositing instruments of ratification with the United
Nations on April 6, 1998. On February 14, 2002, the United Kingdom conducted its first
subcritical experiment jointly with the United States at the Nevada Test Site.
France: On June 13, 1995, President Jacques Chirac announced that France would
conduct eight nuclear tests at its test site at Mururoa Atoll in the South Pacific, finishing by
the end of May 1996. The armed services had reportedly wanted the tests to check existing
warheads, validate a new warhead, and develop a computer system to simulate warheads to
render further testing unneeded. Many nations criticized the decision. On August 10, 1995,
France indicated it would halt all nuclear tests once the test series was finished and favored
a CTBT that “prohibit(ed) any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.”
France conducted six tests from September 5, 1995, to January 27, 1996. On January 29,
1996, Chirac announced the end to French testing. On April 6, 1998, France and Britain
deposited instruments of ratification of the CTBT with the United Nations.
Russia: The Russian moratorium continued at least through 1995. The Washington
Times reported in March 1996, that Russia may have conducted a low-yield nuclear test at
its Arctic test site at Novaya Zemlya in January 1996. The Washington Post reported in
August 1997, that the Clinton Administration had determined the event to be an earthquake.
In August 1997, over 40 seismic stations worldwide detected signals from an event near
Novaya Zemlya. Three months later, the Washington Post reported that a CIA panel of
independent experts found “that the seismic event clearly took place in the Kara Sea near
Novaya Zemlya and was not linked to activities at the test site.” Accordingly, “The CIA and
the White House have formally dropped their claim that [the] seismic disturbance ... may have
been caused by a nuclear explosion.” In January 1999, the Washington Post reported that in
the fall of 1998, Russia conducted three nuclear tests, apparently subcritical experiments. The
report stated, “The tests were small enough to be permitted under the Comprehensive Test
Ban Treaty.” The Washington Times reported on September 15, 1999, that Russia may have
conducted a small nuclear test at Novaya Zemlya, though it was unclear if the event was a
nuclear or chemical explosion or a subcritical experiment. On January 1, 2000, Russia
announced plans to conduct about five subcritical experiments in 2000, and on February 4
announced that it conducted seven such experiments between September 23, 1999, and
January 8, 2000. On September 4, 2000, the Atomic Energy Ministry announced that Russia
had conducted three subcritical experiments at Novaya Zemlya between August 28 and
September 3. On November 3, Russia announced it had completed, at Novaya Zemlya, its
fifth and final series of subcritical tests for 2000 during the week of October 30.
CTBT critics claim the 1997 event shows problems with the CTBT. Said the Center for
Security Policy, “Russians and other nations will secretly conduct underground nuclear tests
... By exploiting inherent uncertainties about the signatures of low-yield tests, such nations
will almost certainly be able to escape detection.” Senator Jon Kyl stated, “if you have a
treaty, because of the consequences of declaring a violation, administrations seldom want to
pursue actions against treaty partners.” CTBT supporters counter that the incident shows
that the detection network can detect very small events, and that, as a Pentagon spokesman
said, the event “indicates that we need to have the kinds of transparency that the treaty offers
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to us,” requiring U.S. and Russian ratification. Others point out that on-site inspections of
suspicious events could be performed only if the treaty enters into force.
A Washington Post article of October 3, 1999, stated, “the Central Intelligence Agency
has concluded that it cannot monitor low-level nuclear tests by Russia precisely enough to
ensure compliance with the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ...” The Post report continued
that at very low levels, the CIA “cannot reliably distinguish between a conventional explosion
and a nuclear test or even natural seismic activity ...” The report pointed to a military
intelligence assessment that “over the past 18 months Russia has conducted tests ... to
develop a low-yield tactical nuclear weapon that is the linchpin of a new military doctrine to
counter U.S. superiority in precision guided munitions.” In response, the Clinton
Administration negotiated with Russia to arrange for measures, such as visits by American
experts to the Russian test site and advance notification of subcritical experiments (see
below). On June 30, 2000, Russia ratified the CTBT.
On March 4, 2001, the New York Times reported that U.S. intelligence experts were
divided on whether Russia had been testing for the past several years. Both sides reportedly
agreed that Russia was doing more than it acknowledged. Some U.S. analysts believed that
Russia was conducting hydronuclear tests, which produce a nuclear yield (as distinct from the
yield of a weapon’s chemical explosive) as low as pounds or even grams of TNT equivalent.
Such explosions would violate the CTBT, which Russia has ratified but which has not entered
into force, would be undetectable by seismic means, would be hard to identify as nuclear
explosions by other monitoring methods, and are said to have limited value for weapons
development. The charge that Russia is conducting these tests is reported to be based on
intelligence sources. Other U.S. officials are skeptical of such charges.
Russia has urged the United States to ratify the treaty. In late February 2001, President
Vladimir Putin of Russia and President Kim Dae Jung of the Republic of Korea issued a joint
communique that said in part that they “appealed to other countries to ratify the treaty
without any delays and they also appealed to those countries whose ratification is needed for
it to come into effect.” While the passage did not mention the United States by name, the
New York Times stated that “the object of the communique’s criticism was unmistakable.”
China: China did not participate in the moratorium. It conducted a nuclear test on
October 5, 1993, that many nations condemned. China countered that it had conducted 39
tests, vs. 1,054 for the United States, and needed a few more tests for safety and reliability.
The Chinese government reportedly wrote to U.N. Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali
after its test that “after a comprehensive test ban treaty is concluded and comes into effect,
China will abide by it and carry out no more nuclear tests.” China conducted other tests on
June 10 and October 7, 1994, May 15 and August 17, 1995, and June 8 and July 29, 1996.
Many nations criticized the post-1992 Chinese tests. China announced that the July 1996 test
would be its last, as China would begin a moratorium on July 30, 1996. In a speech of
January 1999, Chinese Ambassador Sha Zukang said China was “accelerating its preparatory
work” and would submit the CTBT for ratification in the first part of 1999. On February 29,
2000, the Chinese government submitted the CTBT to the National People’s Congress for
ratification. As of April 2000, China had not ratified the treaty, but in the wake of the
Duma’s adoption of the treaty, a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman said that China was
likely to accelerate approval of it.
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India: On May 11, 1998, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee announced that India had
conducted three nuclear tests. A government statement said, “The tests conducted today
were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. ... These tests have
established that India has a proven capability for a weaponised nuclear programme. They also
provide a valuable database which is useful in the design of nuclear weapons of different
yields for different applications and for different delivery systems. ...” India announced two
more sub-kiloton tests on May 13. A September 1998 study by Terry Wallace, a University
of Arizona seismologist, concluded based on seismic data that India and Pakistan overstated
the number and (by a factor of four) the explosive yields of their tests. India has conducted
no tests since May 1998. In a September 1998 address to the U.N., Vajpayee said that India
had a test moratorium and that it is “prepared to bring [certain] discussions to a successful
conclusion, so that the entry into force of the CTBT is not delayed beyond September 1999.”
The collapse of his government in April 1999 delayed Indian consideration of the treaty until
after elections held in September. Vajpayee’s party, the BJP, won, and the government
reaffirmed that it would maintain a test moratorium while trying to build a consensus on the
CTBT. However, Senator Spector, who visited India and Pakistan in January 2001, stated,
“In my discussions with officials, it became evident that securing compliance with the CTBT
by these two nations without U.S. ratification would be problematic.” (Congressional
Record, January 24, 2001: S514.) For example, Lalit Mansingh, India’s Foreign Secretary,
“expressed his sentiment that the U.S. should not expect India to sign a Treaty that the U.S.
itself perceives as flawed.” (Ibid.: S513)
Pakistan: Pakistan announced on May 28, 1998, that it had conducted five nuclear tests,
and announced a sixth on May 30. Conflicting reports placed the yields of the smallest
devices between zero and a few kilotons, and between two and 45 kilotons for the largest.
The number of tests is also uncertain; seismic evidence points clearly to only two tests on May
28, though signals of smaller simultaneous tests might have been lost in the signals of larger
tests. Pakistan made no claims of testing fusion devices. By all accounts, Pakistan’s weapons
program relies extensively on foreign, especially Chinese, technology. Pakistan claimed that
the units tested were “ready-to-fire warheads,” as opposed to experimental devices, and
included a warhead for the Ghauri, a missile with a range of 900 miles, and low-yield tactical
weapons. It appears that Pakistan will conduct no further tests. In an address to the U.N.
of September 23, 1998, Pakistan’s Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stated that his country had
a moratorium on testing and was “prepared to accede to the CTBT” by September 1999, with
the implicit condition that sanctions are lifted and the explicit condition that India does not
resume testing. The United States has been lifting various sanctions on India and Pakistan,
such as on agricultural, economic, and military-assistance programs. On November 8, 1999,
Abdul Sattar, the foreign minister of the military government that took power in October
1999, said that his nation would not sign the CTBT unless economic sanctions were lifted,
but that “[w]e will not be the first to conduct further nuclear tests.” In August 2000, General
Pervez Musharraf, the nation’s military ruler, said the time was not ripe to sign the CTBT
because so doing could destabilize Pakistan.
The CTBT: Negotiations and Key Provisions
The Conference on Disarmament, or CD, calls itself “the sole multilateral disarmament
negotiating forum of the international community.” It is affiliated with, funded by, yet
autonomous from the United Nations. It operates by consensus; each member state can block
a decision. On August 10, 1993, the CD gave its Ad Hoc Committee on a Nuclear Test Ban
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“a mandate to negotiate a CTB.” On November 19, 1993, the United Nations General
Assembly unanimously approved a resolution calling for negotiation of a CTBT. The CD’s
1994 session opened in Geneva on January 25, with negotiation of a CTBT its top priority.
The priority had to do with extension of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
That treaty entered into force in 1970. It divided the world into nuclear “haves” — the
United States, Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China, the five declared nuclear powers,
which are also the permanent five (“P5") members of the U.N. Security Council — and
nuclear “have-nots.” The P5 would be the only States Party to the NPT to have nuclear
weapons, but they (and others) would negotiate in good faith on halting the nuclear arms race
soon, on nuclear disarmament, and on general and complete disarmament. Nonnuclear
weapon states saw attainment of a CTBT as the touchstone of good faith on these matters.
The NPT provided for reviews every five years; a review in 1995, 25 years after it entered
into force, would determine whether to extend the treaty indefinitely or for one or more fixed
periods. The Review and Extension Conference of April-May 1995 extended the treaty
indefinitely. Extension was accompanied by certain non-binding measures, including a
Decision on Principles and Objectives for Nuclear Non- Proliferation and Disarmament that
set forth goals on universality of the NPT, nuclear weapon free zones, etc., and stressed the
importance of completing “the negotiations on a universal and internationally and effectively
verifiable Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty no later than 1996.”
The extension decision, binding on States Party to the NPT, was contentious.
Nonnuclear States Party argued that the P5 failed to meet their NPT obligations by not
concluding a CTBT. They saw progress on winding down the arms race as inadequate. They
assailed the NPT as discriminatory because it divides the world into nuclear and nonnuclear
states, and argued for a regime in which no nation has nuclear weapons. The CTBT, in their
view, symbolized this regime because, unlike the NPT, the P5 would give up something
tangible, the ability to develop new sophisticated warheads. Some nonnuclear states saw
NPT extension as their last source of leverage for a CTBT. Other nonnuclear states felt that
the NPT was in the interests of all but would-be proliferators, that anything less than
indefinite extension would undermine the security of most nations, and that the NPT was too
important to put at risk as a means of pressuring the P5 for a CTBT. The explicit linkage
finally drawn between CTBT and NPT lent urgency to negotiations on the former.
The CD reached a draft treaty in August 1996. India argued that the CTBT “should be
securely anchored in the global disarmament context and be linked through treaty language
to the elimination of all nuclear weapons in a time-bound framework.” India also wanted a
treaty to bar weapons research not involving nuclear tests. The draft treaty did not meet these
conditions, which the nuclear weapon states rejected, so India vetoed it at the CD on August
20, barring it from going to the U.N. General Assembly as a CD document. Nations sought
an alternate way to open the treaty for signing. On August 23, Australia asked the General
Assembly to begin considering a resolution to adopt the draft CTBT text and for the
Secretary-General to open it for signing so the treaty could be adopted by a simple majority,
or by the two-thirds majority that India sought, avoiding the need for consensus. A potential
pitfall was that the resolution (i.e., the treaty text) was subject to amendment, yet the nuclear
weapon states viewed amendments as unacceptable. India did not raise obstacles to the vote,
which was held on September 10, with 158 nations in favor, 3 against (India, Bhutan, and
Libya), 5 abstentions, and 19 not voting. The treaty was opened for signing on September
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24. President Clinton signed it on that date, along with representatives of other nations. As
of March 14, 2002, 165 states had signed it and 90 had ratified.
A sixth five-year review conference was held April 24 to May 19, 2000, in New York.
U.S. rejection of the CTBT, lack of Chinese ratification, U.S. efforts to seek renegotiation
of the ABM Treaty, and efforts to ban nuclear weapons in the Middle East led some to fear
dire outcomes from the conference. However, some contentious issues were ironed out,
some were avoided, and concessions were made. For example, a joint statement by the P5
to the conference on May 1 said, “No effort should be spared to make sure that the CTBT
is a universal and internationally and effectively verifiable treaty and to secure its earliest entry
into force.” As a result of effort by many nations, the final document of the conference was
adopted by consensus. Regarding the CTBT, that document reaffirmed that a halt to all
nuclear explosions will contribute to nuclear nonproliferation and nuclear disarmament; called
on all States, especially the 16 that must ratify the CTBT for it to enter into force, “to
continue their efforts to ensure the early entry into force of the Treaty”; and agreed, as a
practical step toward disarmament, “An unequivocal undertaking by the nuclear-weapon
States to accomplish the total elimination of their nuclear arsenals leading to nuclear
disarmament to which all States parties are committed under Article VI” of the NPT.
The balance of this section summarizes key CTBT provisions. For text and the Clinton
Administration’s analysis, see “Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. Message from the
President....” (Full cite under For Further Reading.)
Scope (Article I): The heart of the treaty is the obligation “not to carry out any nuclear
weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion.” This formulation bars even very low
yield tests, as some in the nuclear weapon states had wanted, and bars peaceful nuclear
explosions, as China had wanted, but rejects India’s concern that a CTBT should “leave no
loophole for activity, either explosive-based or non-explosive based, aimed at the continued
development and refinement of nuclear weapons.”
Organization (Article II): The treaty establishes a Comprehensive Nuclear Test- Ban
Treaty Organization, composed of all member states, to implement the treaty. Three groups
are under this Organization. The Conference of States Parties, composed of one
representative from each member state, shall meet in annual and special sessions to consider
and decide issues within the scope of the treaty and oversee the work of the other groups.
An Executive Council with 51 member States shall, among other things, take action on
requests for on-site inspection, and may request a special session of the Conference. A
Technical Secretariat shall carry out verification functions, including operating an
International Data Center, processing and reporting on data from an International Monitoring
System, and receiving and processing requests for on-site inspections.
Verification (Article IV): The treaty establishes a verification regime. It provides for
collection and dissemination of information, and permits States Party to use national technical
means of verification. It specifies verification responsibilities of the Technical Secretariat.
It establishes the International Monitoring System, provides for consultation and clarification
regarding “possible non-compliance,” and makes detailed provisions for on-site inspections.
A Protocol elaborates on the monitoring system and on-site inspections. (For further
information on verification, see CRS Report 98-644, Nuclear Testing: Seismic Monitoring
of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, by James Mielke.)
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Review of the Treaty (Article VIII): The treaty provides for a conference ten years after
entry into force (unless a majority of States Party decide not to hold such a conference) to
review the treaty’s operation and effectiveness. Further review conferences may be held at
subsequent intervals of ten years or less.
Duration and Withdrawal (Article IX): “This treaty shall be of unlimited duration.”
However, “Each State Party shall, in exercising its national sovereignty, have the right to
withdraw from this Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events related to the subject matter
of this Treaty have jeopardized its supreme interests.” President Clinton indicated his possible
willingness to withdraw from the Treaty using this withdrawal provision, which is common
to many arms control agreements, in his speech of August 11, 1995, as one of several
conditions under which the United States would enter the CTBT.
Entry into force (Article XIV): The treaty shall enter into force 180 days after 44 states
named in Annex 2 have deposited instruments of ratification, but not less than two years after
the treaty is opened for signature. If the treaty has not entered into force three years after
being opened for signature, and if a majority of states that have deposited instruments of
ratification so desire, a conference of these states shall be held to decide how to accelerate
the ratification process. Unless otherwise decided, subsequent conferences of this type shall
be held annually until entry into force occurs. The 44 States are the ones with nuclear power
or research reactors that participated in the work of the CD’s 1996 session and were CD
members as of June 18, 1996. This formulation includes nuclear-capable states, includes
nuclear threshold states (in particular Israel, which, along with other States, joined the CD
on June 17, 1996), and excludes Yugoslavia, which did not participate in the CD’s work of
1996. India, North Korea, and Pakistan are on the list of 44 but have not signed the treaty.
Protocol: The Protocol provides details on the International Monitoring System and on
functions of the International Data Center (Part I); spells out on-site inspection procedures
in great detail (Part II); and provides for certain confidence-building measures (Part III).
Annex 1 to the Protocol lists International Monitoring System facilities: seismic stations,
radionuclide stations and laboratories, hydroacoustic stations, and infrasound stations. Annex
2 provides a list of variables that, among others, may be used in analyzing data from these
stations to screen for possible explosions.
Preparing for Entry into Force
The Preparatory Commission (PrepCom) for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
Organization (CTBTO) is working to create the structures and instruments of the CTBT in
anticipation of the treaty’s entry into force. The PrepCom states that its main task “is to
establish the global verification regime foreseen in the Treaty so that it will be operational by
the time the Treaty enters into force.” The PrepCom’s first meeting was in November 1996.
There have been 16 such meetings, with the next scheduled for April 9-12, 2002. There are
other CTBTO groups, which have 9 meetings scheduled for 2002. In October 1999, the New
York Times reported that treaty foes in the Senate were considering eliminating from the
FY2000 Foreign Operations Appropriations bill the $16 million U.S. contribution to the
monitoring network. Senator Helms raised questions in March 2001 about funding for this
purpose. The conference on entry into force, as provided for by Article XIV, was held in
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Geneva October 6-8, 1999. A second such conference, originally planned for September 25-
27, 2001, was held November 11-13, 2001, at U.N. headquarters.
Stockpile Stewardship
P5 states want to maintain their nuclear warheads under a CTBT and assert that they
need computers and scientific facilities to do so. They also want to retain the ability to
resume testing in the event that other nations leave a CTBT, or that high confidence in key
weapons cannot be maintained with testing. Nonnuclear nations fear that the P5 will simply
carry on business as usual under a CTBT, designing new warheads without testing.
Maintaining nuclear weapons, especially without testing, is termed “stockpile stewardship.”
This is a contentious issue. This section focuses on the U.S. debate
Stewardship bears on Senate advice and consent to CTBT ratification. Beginning with
the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, the United States has implemented “safeguards,” or
unilateral steps to maintain its nuclear weapons capability consistent with treaty limitations.
President Kennedy’s agreement to safeguards was critical for obtaining Senate approval of
the 1963 treaty. The safeguards were modified most recently by President Clinton. In his
August 11, 1995, speech announcing a zero-yield CTBT as a goal, he stated:
As a central part of this decision, I am establishing concrete, specific safeguards that define
the conditions under which the United States will enter into a comprehensive test ban.
These safeguards will strengthen our commitments in the areas of intelligence, monitoring
and verification, stockpile stewardship, maintenance of our nuclear laboratories, and test
readiness.
These safeguards are: Safeguard A: “conduct of a Science Based Stockpile Stewardship
program to insure a high level of confidence in the safety and reliability of nuclear weapons
in the active stockpile”; Safeguard B: “maintenance of modern nuclear laboratory facilities
and programs”; Safeguard C: “maintenance of the basic capability to resume nuclear test
activities prohibited by the CTBT”; Safeguard D: “a comprehensive research and
development program to improve our treaty monitoring”; Safeguard E: intelligence programs
for “information on worldwide nuclear arsenals, nuclear weapons development programs, and
related nuclear programs”; and Safeguard F: the understanding that if the Secretaries of
Defense and Energy inform the President “that a high level of confidence in the safety or
reliability of a nuclear weapon type which the two Secretaries consider to be critical to our
nuclear deterrent could no longer be certified, the President, in consultation with Congress,
would be prepared to withdraw from the CTBT under the standard ‘supreme national
interests’ clause in order to conduct whatever testing might be required.”
Regarding the stewardship program, President Clinton said that the Secretary of Energy
and the directors of the nuclear weapons laboratories had assured him that the United States
could maintain its nuclear deterrent under a CTBT through a program of science-based
stockpile stewardship. “In order for this program to succeed,” he said, “both the
administration and the Congress must provide sustained bipartisan support for the stockpile
stewardship program over the next decade and beyond.”
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The ability of the stewardship program to maintain nuclear weapons without testing was
a crucial issue in the Senate debate on the CTBT. The treaty’s opponents claimed that
stewardship offered no guarantee of maintaining weapons, and indeed that computer models,
experiments, and other techniques might offer no clue to some problems that develop over
time. They further argued that it could be perhaps a decade before the tools for the program
were fully in place, and by that time many weapon designers with test experience would have
retired. Supporters held that the program was highly likely to work, having already certified
the stockpile three times, and that safeguard “F” provided for U.S. withdrawal from the treaty
in the event high confidence in a key weapon type could not be maintained without testing.
Stewardship is funded by the Weapons Activities account in the budget of the National
Nuclear Security Administration, or NNSA. (Congress established NNSA in 1999 as a
semiautonomous agency within DOE to manage stockpile stewardship and related programs.)
The three main elements of this account are Directed Stockpile Work, activities directly
supporting weapons in the stockpile; Campaigns, technical efforts to develop and maintain
capabilities needed to certify the stockpile for the long term; and Readiness in Technical Base
and Facilities, mainly infrastructure and operations for the weapons complex. The
appropriation for Weapons Activities was $5.006 billion in FY2001 and $5.429 billion in
FY2002. Of the latter amount, NNSA estimates “test readiness” – readiness to conduct
nuclear tests at Nevada Test Site in 24 to 36 months – to cost $181 million. The FY2003
request for Weapons Activities is $5.869 billion.
Subcritical experiments: As part of the stockpile stewardship program, NNSA is
conducting “subcritical experiments.” CRS offers the following definition based on
documents and on discussions with DOE and laboratory staff: “Subcritical experiments at
Nevada Test Site involve chemical high explosives and fissile materials in configurations and
quantities such that no self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction can result. In these
experiments, the chemical high explosives are used to generate high pressures that are applied
to the fissile materials. The only fissile material under current consideration for use in near-
term subcritical experiments is plutonium-239.” They are held in a tunnel complex, about
1,000 feet underground at Nevada Test Site. The complex could contain explosions up to
500 pounds of explosive and associated plutonium. These experiments try to determine if
radioactive decay of aged plutonium would degrade weapon performance. In 1998, Secretary
of Energy Bill Richardson called them “a key part of our scientific program to provide new
tools and data that assess age-related complications and maintain the reliability and safety of
the nation’s nuclear deterrent.” As they produce no chain reaction, the Clinton
Administration saw them as consistent with the CTBT. Critics counter that they would help
design new weapons without testing; are unnecessary; may look like nuclear tests if not
monitored intrusively; and are inconsistent with the spirit of a CTBT, which, critics believe,
is aimed at halting development of nuclear weapons, not just stopping testing.
The 16 subcritical experiments held so far are: 1997: Rebound, July 2; Holog, September
18; 1998: Stagecoach, March 25; Bagpipe, September 26; Cimarron, December 11; 1999:
Clarinet, February 9; Oboe, September 30; Oboe 2, November 9; 2000: Oboe 3, February 3;
Thoroughbred, March 22; Oboe 4, April 6; Oboe 5, August 18; Oboe 6, December 14; 2001:
Oboe 8, September 26; Oboe 7, December 13 (Oboe 7 was held after Oboe 8); 2002: Vito
(jointly with United Kingdom), February 14.
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Test Readiness: At present, U.S. policy calls for NNSA to be able to conduct a nuclear
test within 2 to 3 years of a decision to test. In testimony before the House Armed Services
Committee on June 27, 2001, General John Gordon, NNSA Administrator, said:
we are conducting an internal review on how we could improve our test readiness posture;
that is, our ability to conduct a nuclear test should we ever be so directed. ... this is not a
proposal or suggestion that we need to conduct a test, but I personally am not comfortable
with not being able to conduct a nuclear test within about three years. And, clearly, any
change in this direction would require full consultation with the Congress.
DOE requested funds for FY2001 supplemental appropriations to increase test readiness.
The House Appropriations Committee, in its report on the FY2002 Energy and Water
Development Appropriations Bill, denied the request, arguing that increasing test readiness
would require the Secretary of Defense to complete the strategic (nuclear) review, the
President to make a recommendation to Congress, and the Armed Services Committees and
the Congress to approve the recommendation. As none of these activities had occurred, it
“is not the Committee’s intent to provide funding ... to increase the readiness for underground
nuclear testing. None of the funds in [various appropriations] Acts may be used for that
purpose.” In contrast, the Senate Appropriations Committee recommended adding $9.1
million for “program readiness,” some of which was to enhance NTS readiness. Conferees
adopted the Senate provision. The Nuclear Posture Review (see above) recommends
improving test readiness by an unspecified length of time.
U.S. Nuclear Tests by Calendar Year
1945-49
6
1960-64
202
1980-84
92
1950-54
43
1965-69
231
1985-89
75
1955-59
145
1970-74
137
1990-92
23
1975-79
100
Total
1054
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
Note: These figures include all U.S. nuclear tests, of which 24 were U.K. tests conducted at the Nevada Test
Site between 1962 and 1991. They reflect data on unannounced tests that DOE declassified on December 7,
1993. They exclude the two atomic bombs that the United States dropped on Japan in 1945. On June 27,
1994, Secretary O’Leary announced that DOE had redefined three nuclear detonations (one each in 1968,
1970, and 1972) as separate nuclear tests. This table reflects these figures. She also declassified the fact that
63 tests, conducted from 1963 through 1992, involved more than one nuclear explosive device.
CTBT Pros and Cons
For a more detailed discussion, see CRS Report RS20351, Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty: Pro and Con, October 5, 1999.
A CTBT is contentious. Supporters argue it would fulfill disarmament commitments the
nuclear weapon states made in the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and its 1995 Review and
Extension Conference; end a discriminatory regime in which nuclear weapon states can test
while others cannot; and aid nonproliferation by preventing nonnuclear weapon states from
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developing nuclear weapons of advanced design. Some supporters hold a CTBT would
freeze a U.S. advantage in nuclear weaponry and that this Nation could maintain its weapons
without testing through a program of science and production. A CTBT, it is argued, would
also prevent the development of weapons of advanced design by the P5, reducing future
threats to the United States, and impede India’s ability to develop a thermonuclear weapon.
Some hold the treaty would bar China from incorporating any lessons learned from espionage
into new warheads.
Critics counter that testing is the only sure way to maintain confidence in the safety and
reliability of U.S. nuclear weapons. They contend that if friends and allies doubt U.S. nuclear
capability, they might feel compelled to develop their own nuclear weapons to protect their
security. Some opponents believe that a CTBT, by undercutting confidence in the U.S.
deterrent, could lead to nuclear disarmament, thereby exposing the United States and the
world to blackmail by a nation or group possessing a few weapons. Critics also charge that
nations wanting to develop nuclear weapons would likely not sign a CTBT and in any event
could develop fairly sophisticated weapons without testing; that verification would be
difficult; and that the United States might need to develop new weapons to meet new threats.
If other nations become nuclear powers or if existing ones develop new weapons, the proper
response, in this view, is ballistic missile defense.
CHRONOLOGY
03/14/02 —
San Marino became the 90th nation to ratify the CTBT.
02/15/02 —
The National Nuclear Security Agency held the 16th U.S. subcritical
experiment, and the first with United Kingdom participation, “Vito.”
01/09/02 —
J.D. Crouch, Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy,
presented a briefing on the Nuclear Posture Review.
12/13/01 —
The National Nuclear Security Agency held the 15th U.S. subcritical
experiment, “Oboe 7.”
11/11/01 —
The Conference on Facilitating the Entry into Force of the CTBT began on
this date at U.N. headquarters in New York and ended November 13.
06/26/01 —
The House Appropriations Committee declined to add funds to the FY2002
Energy and Water Development Appropriations Bill to increase nuclear test
readiness, arguing the Secretary of Defense, President, Armed Services
Committees, and Congress must first request or approve these funds.
03/04/01 —
The New York Times reported that U.S. intelligence experts were divided on
whether Russia had conducted clandestine tests over the past several years.
11/01/00 —
The First Committee of the U.N. General Assembly recommended,144-1,
with 12 abstentions, adopting a resolution that, among other things, called for
ratifying the CTBT by 2003.
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06/30/00 —
Russia ratified the CTBT.
For earlier chronology, see CRS Report 97-1007, Nuclear Testing and Comprehensive Test
Ban: Chronology Starting September 1992.
FOR ADDITIONAL READING
Bailey, Kathleen. The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty: The Costs Outweigh the Benefits.
Cato Institute, Policy Analysis no. 330, January 15, 1999: 31 p.
Broad, William, “Call for New Breed of Nuclear Arms Faces Hurdles,” New York Times,
March 11, 2002: 8.
Broad, William, and Patrick Tyler, “Dispute over Russian Testing Divides U.S. Nuclear
Experts,” New York Times, March 4, 2001: 10.
Brown, Harold, Melvin Laird, and William Perry, “Ratify, but Review,” New York Times,
January 7, 2001, sec. 4, p. 17.
Center for Security Policy. “‘Fuggedaboutit’: Gen. Shalikashvili’s Paean to C.T.B.T. is
Wrong – as well as Dead on Arrival,” transition brief 01-T-02, January 7, 2001, 2 p.
[http://www.security-policy.org/papers/2001/01-T02.html]
—— “Testing President Bush,” decision brief 01-D 43, July 9, 2001, 3 p.
[http://www.security-policy.org/papers/2001/01-D43.html]
Chirac, Jacques, Tony Blair, and Gerhard Schroder, “A Treaty We All Need,” New York
Times, October 8, 1999: 31.
Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. “The Test Ban Treaty: Still In America’s Interests –
But the Bush Administration Is Befuddled on Whether to End Nuclear Blasts,” June 8,
2001; available at [http://www.clw.org/coalition/briefv5n13.htm]
Conference on Facilitating the Entry into Force of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban
Treaty. “Report of the Conference.” November 15, 2001, 10 p. Available in .pdf
format via [http://pws.ctbto.org/].
Dewar, Helen, “Senate Rejects Test Ban Treaty,” Washington Post, October 14, 1999: 1.
Gordon, Michael, “U.S. Nuclear Plan Sees New Targets and New Weapons,” New York
Times, March 10, 2002: 1.
Kyl, Senator Jon. “Why the Senate Rejected the CTBT and the Implications of Its Demise,”
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Roundtable, June 5, 2000.
[http://www.ceip.org]
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Lynch, Colum, “U.S. Boycotts Nuclear Test Ban Meeting,” Washington Post, November 12,
2001: 6.
Nitze, Paul, and Sidney Drell,“This Treaty Must Be Ratified,” Washington Post, June 21,
1999: 19.
Paine, Christopher. Facing Reality: Resuming Nuclear Test Explosions Would Harm U.S.
and International Security. Natural Resources Defense Council, January 1999. c. 22
p. Responds to Kathleen Bailey, The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty... (cited above).
Pincus, Walter, “Underground Test Speedup Barred,” Washington Post, July 6, 2001: 23.
Shalikashvili, Gen. John (USA, Ret.). Letter to the President and Report on the Findings and
Recommendations Concerning the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, January 4,
2001. [http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/ctbtpage/ctbt_report.html]
Shanker, Thom, and David Sanger, “White House Wants to Bury Pact Banning Tests of
Nuclear Arms,” New York Times, July 7, 2001: 1.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty: Message from the
President of the United States Transmitting Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty...,
Treaty Doc. 105-28, September 23, 1997. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1997,
xvi + 230 p.
U.S. Department of Defense. “Special Briefing on the Nuclear Posture Review.” January
9, 2002. [http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jan2002/t01092002_t0109npr.html]
U.S. Department of Energy. United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September
1992. DOE/NV-209 (Rev. 14), December 1994: viii + 97 p.
Younger, Stephen. “Nuclear Weapons in the Twenty-First Century.” Los Alamos National
Laboratory, LAUR-00-2850, June 27, 2000, 19 p.
Selected World Wide Web Sites
Center for Security Policy. Short articles critical of the CTBT.
[http://www.security-policy.org]
CTBT Site. Sponsored by Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. Articles, transcripts, etc.
[http://www.clw.org/coalition/]
DOE’s Office of the Chief Financial Officer. FY2002 DOE budget request.
[http://www.cfo.doe.gov/budget/02budget/index.htm]
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization:
Information on the work of the commission, including its organization and meetings;
verification; CTBT signatories and ratifications; and treaty text.
[http://pws.ctbto.org]
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