Order Code IB95112
CRS Issue Brief for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Terrorism, the Future, and
U.S. Foreign Policy
Updated September 25, 2001
Raphael F. Perl
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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CONTENTS
SUMMARY
MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
Definitions
U.S. Policy Response
Framework
Dilemmas
Policy Tools
Diplomacy/Constructive Engagement
Economic Sanctions
Covert Action
Rewards for Information Program
Extradition/Law Enforcement Cooperation
Military Force
International Conventions
Potential Tools
An International Court for Terrorism
Media Self-Restraint
Policy Reform
U.S. Organization and Program Response
Antiterrorism Assistance Program
Assistance to Victims Programs
Counterterrorism Research and Development Program
Diplomatic Security Program
Options for Program Enhancement
State Supported Terrorism
The Terrorism List
Adding and Removing Countries on the List
Countries on the List
Iran
Iraq
Libya
Syria
Sudan
Cuba
North Korea
List Reform Options
An Informal Watchlist?

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Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy
SUMMARY
International terrorism has long been
nuclear weaponry raise a host of new issues.
recognized as a foreign and domestic security
Faced with such prospects, governments are
threat. The tragic events of September 11 in
increasingly likely to consider using covert
New York, the Washington, D.C., area, and
operations to protect their citizenry.
Pennsylvania have dramatically re-energized
the nation’s focus and resolve on terrorism.
What, in the recent past, has been some
This issue brief examines international terrorist
analysts’ belief that a comprehensive review of
actions and threats and the U.S. policy re-
U.S. terrorism policy, organizational structure,
sponse. Available policy options range from
and preparedness to respond to major terrorist
diplomacy, international cooperation and
incidents in the United States is needed, has by
constructive engagement to economic sanc-
necessity become a mainstream view.
tions, covert action, physical security enhance-
ment, and military force.
Another issue is whether PDD 62, which
established a terrorism coordinator at the
The recent terrorist incidents in the
National Security Council (NSC), takes too
United States, as well as bombings of the
much of the terrorism decisionmaking process
U.S.S. Cole, Oklahoma City, World Trade
out of the realm of congressional oversight, as
Center in 1993, and the U.S. embassies in
NSC members do not generally testify before
Kenya and Tanzania, and the Tokyo subway
Congress.
gas attack, have brought the issue of terrorism
to the forefront of American public interest.
Radical Islamic fundamentalist groups
Questions relate to whether U.S. policy and
pose a major terrorist threat to U.S. interests
organizational mechanisms are adequate to
and friendly regimes. Nations facing difficult
deal with both state sponsored or abetted
challenges include Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt,
terrorism and that undertaken by independent
Israel, Jordan, Pakistan, and, to a lesser de-
groups.
gree, Russia and Saudi Arabia. One of the
seven states on the State Department’s terror-
Formal definitions of terrorism do not
ism list, Iran, is seen as the most active state
include terrorist activity for financial profit or
sponsor. Iran has been aggressively seeking
terrorists motivated by religious goals.
nuclear weapons technology. Sanctions have
Non-traditional harm such as computer “vio-
not deterred such activity to any meaningful
lence” may not be included as well. Such
degree. Some see utility in creation of an
activity may well be on the rise.
informal “watch-list” of nations not currently
qualifying for inclusion on the terrorism list.
Terrorist activities supported by
See also: CRS Report 98-733, Terrorism: U.S.
sophisticated planning and logistics as well as
Response to Bombings in Kenya and Tanza-
possible access to chemical, biological, or
nia: A New Policy Direction?
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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MOST RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
On September 11, 2001, in an apparently well-financed/coordinated attack, hijackers
rammed jetliners into each of the New York World Trade Center’s Towers and ultimately
collapsed them. A third hijacked airliner plowed into the Pentagon and a fourth hijacked
airliner crashed near Pittsburgh, raising speculation that a related mission – aimed at the
White House – had failed. Clean-up operations and law enforcement investigations
continue, and response options are being pursued. In excess of 6,700 persons are dead.
President Bush, in addressing the nation, stressed that the United States will make no
distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them. The
President characterized the incidents as “acts of war.” Secretary of State Colin Powell
called for a “full scale assault against terrorism” and announced plans to launch a
worldwide coalition against terrorism. Secretary of State Powell in September 23 press
interviews confirmed that he is “absolutely convinced” that the al-Qaida network is
responsible and that a full scale campaign was underway, using all elements of national and
international power, to go after Osama bin Laden and al-Qaida network affiliated groups.
Administration officials have stressed that rallying the international community, especially
the law enforcement and intelligence communities, and shutting down supporting financial
institutions are important components of the campaign.

On September 20, President Bush announced creation of a new Cabinet-level Office
of Homeland Security (OHS) to be headed by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge.
Meanwhile, the Administration is continuing to iron out details of a draft executive order
directing the Federal Emergency Management Agency to establish an Office of National
Preparedness to coordinate a response to biological, chemical, or nuclear attacks. Vice
President Dick Cheney’s new task force on terrorist threats is currently conducting a review
to determine how best to respond to major terrorist incidents.
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
In recent years, terrorism has been primarily viewed as an international and foreign
policy issue. Numerous acts of state-sponsored terrorists and of foreign-based groups have
given support to this notion. While U.S. policies, citizens and interests are prime targets for
international terrorism — in 2000, approximately 47% of all terrorist incidents worldwide
were committed against U.S. citizens or property, according to the U.S. Department of State
— the vast majority of those acts took place on foreign soil. U.S. public perception of
terrorism as primarily an overseas issue was dramatically changed by the September 2001
attacks.
On April 30, 2001, the Department of State released its Patterns of Global Terrorism
report (Patterns 2000). In 2000, casualties associated with terrorism worldwide were up
from 1999 data. The report indicates that worldwide deaths from terrorist incidents increased
from 233 in 1999 to 405 in 2000. The number of wounded increased from 706 to 791. In
terms of casualties by region, Asia ranked first; Africa, second; and the Middle East, third.
In terms of number of attacks by region, Latin America ranked first; Asia, second; and Africa,
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third. In 2000, the number of terrorist attacks declined in significantly in Western Europe,
and slightly in the Middle East and Eurasia.
Both timing and target selection by terrorist groups can have significant political and
economic impact on many activities, ranging from U.S. commercial activities to the Middle
East peace process. Some analysts have expressed concern that radical Islamic groups may
seek to exploit economic and political instabilities in Saudi Arabia. Other potential target
nations of such groups include Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, India, Jordan, Pakistan, and Turkey.
Inherent in Patterns 2000 is concern that a decline in state sponsorship of terrorism has
moved terrorism eastward from Libya, Syria, and Lebanon to South Asia. The result: more
U.S. policy focus on Osama bin Laden and the alliance of groups operating out of
Afghanistan with the acquiescence of the Taliban. A heavy area of focus remains the ability
of terrorists to raise funds through non-state sources, often through charitable contributions,
kidnaping, and drug trafficking.
Patterns 2000 cites North Korea and Sudan as possible candidates for removal from the
list of state sponsors of terrorism (see CRS Report RL30613, North Korea: Terrorism List
Removal?). Iran, despite political changes in 2000, is again listed as the most active state
sponsor of international terrorism. Iran and Syria were cited for supporting regional terrorist
groups. Lebanon was again cited as a key safe haven and singled out as being unresponsive
to U.S. requests to bring to justice terrorists who have conducted anti-U.S. attacks. Patterns
2000 reflects ongoing concern by Russia and Chechnya’s neighbors that increased
radicalization of Islamist populations would encourage violence and spread instability
elsewhere in Russia and beyond. Though not added to the list, Afghanistan and Pakistan were
singled out as major sites of terrorist activity.
The destruction of the World Trade Center and the severe damage to the Pentagon,
together with other incidents such as the bombings of the U.S. embassies in East Africa, of
the World Trade Center in 1993, and of the Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires may
indicate a desire to inflict higher casualties on what are generally less protected civilian
targets. It may be that state-sponsored terrorism is decreasing significantly as, in a post-Cold
War era, groups find it harder to obtain sponsors, and rogue states are less willing to risk
exposure to broad based and severe international sanctions. In this environment, access to
private sources of funding for terrorist enterprises becomes critical.
International terrorism is recognized as a threat to U.S. foreign and domestic security
it also undermines a broad range of U.S. foreign policy goals. Terrorism erodes international
stability, a major foreign and economic policy objective for the United States. Terrorist
groups often seek to destabilize or overthrow governments, sometimes democratically elected
— or friendly — governments, and such groups often draw their support from public
discontent over the perceived inability of governments to deliver peace, security, and
economic prosperity. Efforts by governments to enhance national or regional economic
development and stability may become the object of particularly virulent attack. In this
regard, and because of their avowed goals to overthrow secular regimes in countries with
large Muslim populations, extremist Islamic fundamentalist groups, and Iran’s support for
such groups, are seen as a particular threat to U.S. foreign policy goals and objectives.
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Definitions
There is no universally accepted definition of international terrorism. One definition
widely used in U.S. government circles, and incorporated into law, defines international
terrorism as terrorism involving the citizens or property of more than one country. Terrorism
is broadly defined as politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets
by subnational groups or clandestine agents. A terrorist group is defined as a group which
practices or which has significant subgroups which practice terrorism (22 U.S.C. 2656f). One
potential shortfall of this traditional definition is its focus on groups and group members and
exclusion of individual (non-group organized) terrorist activity which has recently risen in
frequency and visibility. Another possible weakness of these standard definitions is the
criterion of violence in a traditional form. Analysts pointing to computer “virus” sabotage
incidents warn that terrorists acts could include more sophisticated forms of destruction and
extortion such as disabling a national infrastructure by penetrating vital computer software.
Finally, the October 12, 2000, U.S.S. Cole bombing of a U.S. military vessel raises issues
of whether the standard definition would categorize this attack as terrorist, as the Cole may
not qualify as a “non-combatant” (see CRS Report RS20721 on the Cole bombing).
Current definitions of terrorism all share one common element: politically motivated
behavior. Such definitions do not include violence for financial profit or religious motivation.
Additionally, the rapid growth of transnational criminal organizations and the growing range
and scale of such operations could well result in their use of violence to achieve objectives
with financial profit as the driving motivation. Thus, although the basic assumption today is
that all terrorist acts are politically motivated, some are driven by other factors, and this
number may grow in light of expanding international criminal activity and an increasing
number of extremist acts carried out in the name of religious and cultural causes. A new
approach might focus more on defining terrorist acts, giving less emphasis to the motivation
behind the acts.
U.S. Policy Response
Framework
Past Administrations have employed a range of options to combat international
terrorism, from diplomacy and international cooperation and constructive engagement to
economic sanctions, covert action, protective security measures, and military force. The
application of sanctions is one of the most frequently used anti-terrorist tools of U.S.
policymakers. Governments supporting international terrorism (as identified by the
Department of State) are prohibited from receiving U.S. economic and military assistance.
Export of munitions to such countries is foreclosed, and restrictions are imposed on exports
of “dual use” equipment such as aircraft and trucks.
In the wake of the September 2001 World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks, President
Bush, in addressing the Nation, stressed that the United States in responding to the attacks,
will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who
harbor them. The President characterized the incidents as “acts of war.” Secretary of State
Colin Powell called for a “full scale assault against terrorism” and announced plans to launch
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a worldwide coalition against terrorism. In a September 20 address to Congress, President
Bush characterized the U.S. response as a “lengthy campaign,” which may include “dramatic
strikes,” “covert operations,” starving terrorists of funding, and pursuing nations that provide
“aid or safe haven to terrorism.”
Most experts agree that the most effective way to fight terrorism is to gather as much
intelligence as possible; disrupt terrorist plans and organizations before they act; and organize
multinational cooperation against terrorists and countries that support them. The U.N.’s role
in mandating sanctions against Libya for its responsibility in the 1988 Pan Am 103 bombing
was significant as the first instance when the world community imposed sanctions against a
country in response to its complicity in an act of terrorism. Several factors made the action
possible. First, terrorism has touched many more countries in recent years, forcing
governments to put aside parochial interests. (Citizens from over 30 countries have
reportedly died in Libyan-sponsored bombings.) Second, the end of the Cold War has
contributed to increased international cooperation against terrorism. And third, U.S.
determination to punish terrorist countries, by military force in some instances, once their
complicity was established, was a major factor spurring other countries to join
U.N.-sponsored action.
Technology is also an important factor in the terrorism/counterterrorism equation.
Increasingly, analysts and leaders in the scientific and engineering communities stress the
potential for technology to play an important role in thwarting terrorist threats; and in
protecting and maximizing individual freedoms in a security conscious society.
In the past, governments have often preferred to handle terrorism as a national problem
without outside interference. Some governments were also wary of getting involved in
others’ battles and possibly attracting additional terrorism in the form of reprisals. Others
were reluctant to join in sanctions if their own trade interests might be damaged or they
sympathized with the perpetrators’ cause. Finally, there is the persistent problem of
extraditing terrorists without abandoning the long-held principle of asylum for persons fleeing
persecution for legitimate political or other activity.
Dilemmas
In their desire to combat terrorism in a modern political context, nations often face
conflicting goals and courses of action: (1) providing security from terrorist acts, i.e., limiting
the freedom of individual terrorists, terrorist groups, and support networks to operate
unimpeded in a relatively unregulated environment versus (2) maximizing individual freedoms,
democracy, and human rights. Efforts to combat terrorism are complicated by a global trend
towards deregulation, open borders, and expanded commerce. Particularly in democracies
such as the United States, the constitutional limits within which policy must operate are often
seen by some to conflict directly with a desire to secure the lives of citizens against terrorist
activity more effectively. This issue will likely come to the fore as the United States develops
its response to the September 2001 incidents.
Another dilemma for policymakers is the need to identify the perpetrators of particular
terrorist acts and those who train, fund, or otherwise support or sponsor them. Moreover,
as the international community increasingly demonstrates its ability to unite and apply
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sanctions against rogue states, states will become less likely to overtly support terrorist
groups or engage in state sponsored terrorism.
Today U.S. policy focus is on terrorist organizations such as al-Qaida and affiliated
networks, and state supporters. But in the future, it may be that new brands of terrorists will
emerge: individuals who are not affiliated with any established terrorist organization and who
are apparently not agents of any state sponsor. The worldwide threat of such individual or
“boutique” terrorism, or that of “spontaneous” terrorist activity, such as the bombing of
bookstores in the United States after Ayatollah Khomeini’s death edict against British author
Salman Rushdie, appears to be on the increase. Thus, one likely profile for the terrorist of
the 21st century may well be a private individual not affiliated with any established group.
Another profile might be a group-affiliated individual acting independent of the group, but
drawing on other similarly minded individuals for support. Because U.S. international
counter-terrorism policy framework has been sanctions-oriented, and has traditionally sought
to pin responsibility on state-sponsors, changes in policy are being considered and
implemented.
Another problem surfacing in the wake of the number of incidents associated with
Islamic fundamentalist groups is how to condemn and combat such terrorist activity, and the
extreme and violent ideology of specific radical groups, without appearing to be anti-Islamic
in general. A desire to punish a state for supporting international terrorism may also be
subject to conflicting foreign policy objectives.
Policy Tools
The U.S. government has employed a wide array of policy tools to combat international
terrorism, from diplomacy and international cooperation and constructive engagement to
economic sanctions, covert action, protective security measures, and military force.
Diplomacy/Constructive Engagement. Use of diplomacy to help create a global
anti-terror coalition is a central component of the Bush Administration response to September
11 events. To date, the United Nations Security Council has condemned the attacks in a
unanimous declaration, and NATO Secretary General George Robertson has characterized
the attacks, in terms of Article V (mutual defense provisions) of the NATO Treaty, as an
attack on all members of the NATO alliance. Some argue that diplomacy holds little hope of
success against determined terrorists or the countries that support them. However, in most
cases, diplomatic measures are considered least likely to widen the conflict and therefore are
usually tried first.
In incidents of international terrorism by subnational groups, implementing a policy
response of constructive engagement is complicated by the lack of existing channels and
mutually accepted rules of conduct between governmental entities and the group in question.
In some instances, as was the case with the PLO, legislation may specifically prohibit official
contact with a terrorist organization or its members. Increasingly, however, governments
appear to be pursuing policies which involve verbal contact with terrorist groups or their
representatives.
The media remain powerful forces in confrontations between terrorists and governments.
Appealing to, and influencing, public opinion may impact not only the actions of governments
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but also those of groups engaged in terrorist acts. From the terrorist perspective, media
coverage is an important measure of the success of a terrorist act or campaign. And in
hostage type incidents, where the media may provide the only independent means a terrorist
has of knowing the chain of events set in motion, coverage can complicate rescue efforts.
Governments can use the media in an effort to arouse world opinion against the country or
group using terrorist tactics. Public diplomacy and the media can be used to mobilize public
opinion in other countries to pressure governments to take action against terrorism. An
example would be to mobilize the tourist industry to pressure governments into participating
in sanctions against a terrorist state. See CRS Report 97-960, Terrorism, the Media, and the
Government: Perspectives, Trends, and Options for Policymakers.
Economic Sanctions. In the past, use of economic sanctions was usually predicated
upon identification of a nation as an active supporter or sponsor of international terrorism.
On September 24, 2001, President Bush signed an executive order (Executive Order 13324)
on September 25, 2001, freezing the assets of 27 organizations known to be affiliated with
bin Laden’s network and giving the Treasury’s secretary broad powers to impose sanctions
on banks around the world that provide these organizations access to the international
financial system. Previously, on August 20, 1998, President Clinton signed an executive
order freezing assets owned by Saudi-born Islamic terrorist leader Osama bin Laden, specific
associates, and their self-proclaimed Islamic Army Organization, and prohibiting U.S.
individuals and firms from doing business with them. Earlier, the Clinton Administration had
frozen the assets of 12 alleged Middle East terrorist organizations and 18 individuals
associated with those organizations. On October 8, 1997, the State Department released a
list of 30 foreign terrorist organizations. As of September 6, 2001, the number of
organizations on this list stood at 30. The 1996 Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
Act makes it a crime to provide support to these organizations, and their members shall be
denied entry visas into the United States.
Economic sanctions fall into six categories: restrictions on trading, technology transfer,
foreign assistance, export credits and guarantees, foreign exchange and capital transactions,
and economic access. Sanctions may include a total or partial trade embargo, embargo on
financial transactions, suspension of foreign aid, restrictions on aircraft or ship traffic, or
abrogation of a friendship, commerce, and navigation treaty. Sanctions usually require the
cooperation of other countries to make them effective, and such cooperation is not always
forthcoming.
The President has a variety of laws at his disposal, but the broadest in its potential scope
is the International Emergency Economic Powers Act. The Act permits imposition of
restrictions on economic relations once the President has declared a national emergency
because of a threat to the U.S. national security, foreign policy, or economy. While the
sanctions authorized must deal directly with the threat responsible for the emergency, the
President can regulate imports, exports, and all types of financial transactions, such as the
transfer of funds, foreign exchange, credit, and securities, between the United States and the
country in question. Specific authority for the Libyan trade embargo is in Section 503 of the
International Trade and Security Act of 1985, while Section 505 of the Act authorizes the
banning of imports of goods and services from any country supporting terrorism. (See also
CRS Report RS20871, The Iran Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA).) Other major laws that can be
used against countries supporting terrorism are the Export Administration Act, the Arms
Export Control Act, and specific items or provisions of foreign assistance legislation.
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P.L. 104-132 prohibits the sale of arms to any country the President certifies is not
cooperating fully with U.S. antiterrorism efforts. The seven terrorist list countries and
Afghanistan are currently on this list. The law also require that aid be withheld to any nation
providing lethal military aid a country on the terrorism list.
Covert Action. Intelligence gathering, infiltration of terrorist groups, and military
operations involve a variety of clandestine or so called “covert” activities. Much of this
activity is of a passive monitoring nature. A more active form of covert activity occurs during
events such as a hostage crisis or hijacking when a foreign country may quietly request
advice, equipment, or technical support during the conduct of operations, with no public
credit to be given the providing country.
Some nations have periodically gone beyond monitoring or covert support activities and
resorted to unconventional methods beyond their territory for the express purpose of
neutralizing individual terrorists and/or thwarting preplanned attacks. Examples of activities
might run the gamut from intercepting or sabotaging delivery of funding or weapons to a
terrorist group to seizing and transporting a wanted terrorist to stand trial for assassination
or murder. Arguably, such activity might be justified as preemptive self-defense under Article
51 of the U.N. charter. On the other hand, it could be argued that such actions violate
customary international law. Nevertheless, a July 1989 memorandum by the Department of
Justice’s Office of Legal Counsel advises that the President has the authority to violate
customary international law and can delegate such authority to the Attorney General level,
should the national interest so require.
Assassination is specifically prohibited by U.S. executive order (most recently, E.O.
12333), but bringing of wanted criminals to the United States for trial is not. There exists an
established U.S. legal doctrine that allows an individual’s trial to proceed regardless of
whether he is forcefully abducted from another country, or from international waters or
airspace. For example, Fawaz Yunis, a Lebanese who participated in the 1985 hijacking of
a Jordanian airliner with two Americans among its 70 passengers, was lured aboard a yacht
in international waters off the coast of Cyprus in 1987 by federal agents, flown to the United
States for trial, and convicted.
Experts warn that bringing persons residing abroad to U.S. justice by means other than
extradition or mutual agreement with the host country, i.e., by abduction and their
surreptitious transportation, can vastly complicate U.S. foreign relations, sometimes
jeopardizing interests far more important than “justice,” deterrence, and the prosecution of
a single individual. For example, the abduction of a Mexican national in 1990 to stand trial
in Los Angeles on charges relating to torture and death of a DEA agent led to vehement
protests from the government of Mexico, a government subsequently plagued with evidence
of high level drug related corruption. Subsequently, in November 1994, the two countries
signed a Treaty to Prohibit Transborder Abductions. Notwithstanding the unpopularity of
such abductions in nations that fail to apprehend and prosecute those accused, the “rendering”
of such wanted criminals to U.S. courts is permitted under limited circumstances by a January
1993 Presidential Decision Directive issued under the first Bush Administration, and
reaffirmed by former President Clinton. Such conduct, however, raises prospects of other
nations using similar tactics against U.S. citizens.
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Although conventional explosives — and innovative use of existing technologies —
appear to be the terrorism weapon of choice, the world is increasingly moving into an era in
which terrorists may gain access to nuclear, chemical or biological weaponry. Faced with the
potential of more frequent incidents and higher conventional casualty levels, or a nuclear or
biological attack, the Bush Administration has announced its intention to resort increasingly
to covert operations to neutralize such threats.
Rewards for Information Program. Money is a powerful motivator. Rewards for
information have been instrumental in Italy in destroying the Red Brigades and in Colombia
in apprehending drug cartel leaders. A State Department program is in place, supplemented
by the aviation industry, usually offering rewards of up to $5 million to anyone providing
information that would prevent or resolve an act of international terrorism against U.S.
citizens or U.S. property, or that leads to the arrest or conviction of terrorist criminals
involved in such acts. This program was at least partly responsible for the arrest of Ramzi
Ahmed Yousef, the man accused of masterminding the 1993 World Trade Center bombing,
and of the CIA personnel shooter, Mir Amal Kansi. The program was established by the 1984
Act to Combat International Terrorism (P.L. 98-533), and is administered by State’s
Diplomatic Security Service. Rewards over $250,000 must be approved by the Secretary of
State. The program can pay to relocate informants and immediate family who fear for their
safety. The 1994 “crime bill” (P.L. 103-322) helps relocate aliens and immediate family
members in the United States who are reward recipients. Expanded participation by the
private sector in funding and publicizing such reward programs has been suggested by some
observers. A $25-million reward has been offered by the U.S. for information leading to the
apprehension of Osama bin Laden.
Extradition/Law Enforcement Cooperation. International cooperation in such
areas as law enforcement, customs control, and intelligence activities is an essential pillar of
the Bush Administration antiterrorism policy and response to the September 11, 2001 attacks
on America. One critical law enforcement tool in combating international terrorism is
extradition of terrorists. International extradition traditionally has been subject to several
limitations, including the refusal to extradite for political or extraterritorial offenses and the
refusal of some countries to extradite their nationals. The United States has been encouraging
the negotiation of treaties with fewer limitations, in part as a means of facilitating the transfer
of wanted terrorists. Because much terrorism involves politically motivated violence, the
State Department has sought to curtail the availability of the political offense exception, found
in many extradition treaties, to avoid extradition. Increasingly, rendition is being employed
by the United States as a vehicle for gaining physical custody over terrorist suspects.
Military Force. Although not without difficulties, military force, particularly when
wielded by a superpower such as the United States, can carry substantial clout. Proponents
of selective use of military force usually emphasize the military’s unique skills and specialized
equipment. The April 1986 decision to bomb Libya for its alleged role in the bombing of a
German discotheque exemplifies use military force. Other examples are: (1) the 1993
bombing of Iraq’s military intelligence headquarters by U.S. forces in response to Iraqi efforts
to assassinate former President George Bush during a visit to Kuwait and (2) the August
1998 missile attacks against bases in Afghanistan and an alleged chemical production facility
in Sudan.
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Concerns about the terrorist threat prompted an extensive buildup of the military’s
counter-terrorist organization. A special unit known as “Delta Force” at Fort Bragg, NC, has
been organized to perform anti-terrorist operations when needed. Details about the unit are
secret, but estimates are that it has about 800 assigned personnel.
Use of military force presupposes the ability to identify a terrorist group or sponsor and
its location, knowledge often unavailable to law enforcement officials. Risks of military force
include (1) military casualties or captives, (2) foreign civilian casualties, (3) retaliation and
escalation by terrorist groups, (4) holding the wrong parties responsible, (5) sympathy for the
“bullied” victim, and (6) perception that the United States ignores rules of international law.
P.L. 104-264 includes a sense of the Senate statement that if evidence suggests “beyond
a clear and reasonable doubt” that an act of hostility against any U.S. citizen was a terrorist
act sponsored, organized, condoned, or directed by any nation, then a state of war should be
considered to exist between the United States and that nation.
International Conventions. To date, the United States has joined with the world
community in developing all of the major antiterrorism conventions. These conventions
impose on their signatories an obligation either to prosecute offenders or extradite them to
permit prosecution for a host of terrorism-related crimes, including hijacking vessels and
aircraft, taking hostages, and harming diplomats. An important convention is the Convention
for the Marking of Plastic Explosives. Implementing legislation is in P.L. 104-132. On
September 8, 1999, the United States signed the U.N. Convention on the Suppression of
Terrorist Bombings; and on January 12, 2000, the U.N. Anti-Terrorism Financing Convention
was signed as well. Both these conventions were submitted to the Senate for advice and
consent during the 106th Congress and currently remain there.
Potential Tools
An International Court for Terrorism. Each year bills are introduced urging that
an international court be established, perhaps under the U.N., to sit in permanent session to
adjudicate cases against persons accused of international terrorist crimes. The court would
have broad powers to sentence and punish anyone convicted of such crimes. Critics point out
many administrative and procedural problems associated with establishing such a court and
making it work, including jurisdictional and enforcement issues. An International Court of
Justice in the Hague exists, but it deals with disputes between states and lacks compulsory
jurisdiction and enforcement powers.
Media Self-Restraint. For some, the term “media self-restraint” is an oxymoron; the
sensational scoop is the golden fleece, and dull copy is to be avoided. The media are
occasionally manipulated into the role of mediator and often that of publicist of terrorist
goals. The publication of the Unabomber’s “manifesto” illustrated this. Notably, there have
been attempts by the media to impose its own rules when covering terrorist incidents.
Standards established by the Chicago Sun-Times and Daily News include paraphrasing
terrorist demands to avoid unbridled propaganda; banning participation of reporters in
negotiations with terrorists; coordinating coverage through supervising editors who are in
contact with police authorities; providing thoughtful, restrained, and credible coverage of
stories; and allowing only senior supervisory editors to determine what, if any, information
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should be withheld or deferred. Such standards are far from uniformly accepted. In an
intensely competitive profession consisting of a multinational worldwide press corps, someone
is likely to break the story. See CRS Report 97-960, Terrorism, the Media, and the
Government: Perspectives, Trends and Options for Policymakers.
Policy Reform
On June 5, 2000, the National Commission on Terrorism (NTC), a congressionally
mandated bipartisan body, issued its report, which included a blueprint for U.S.
counterterrorism policy with both policy and legislative recommendations.
The NTC report continues to stimulate strong congressional interest in counterterrorism
policy in the 107th Congress. Areas of ongoing focus are (1) a more proactive
counterterrorism policy; (2) a stronger state sanctions policy; and (3) a more cohesive/better
coordinated U.S. federal counterterrorism policy. (See CRS Report RS20598, National
Commission on Terrorism Report: Background and Issues for Congress.) On September 21,
2001, the House leadership announced creation of a Terrorism and Security Subcommittee
to the House Intelligence Committee. Meanwhile, the January 31, 2001, report of the U.S.
Commission on National Security continues to generate intense congressional and
Administration interest. The congressionally-mandated bipartisan Commission recommended
unifying the Coast Guard, the Customs Service, the Federal Emergency Management Agency,
and the Border Patrol into a new Cabinet status homeland security body—in effect, a national
homeland security agency. Under such a proposal, the new agency would coordinate defense
against, and responses to, terrorist attacks on U.S. soil. Also under the proposal, the National
Guard would be given domestic security as a primary mission.
In the 106th Congress, H.R. 4210, which passed the House, would have given added
attention to domestic terrorism by establishing a President’s Council on Domestic
Preparedness in the White House. Moreover, in the 106th Congress, S. 3205, the (Kyl-
Feinstein) Counterterrorism Act of 2000, which passed the Senate, incorporated a number
of recommendations of the NTC, including measures to ensure (1) enhanced policy emphasis
on control of biological pathogens and terrorist funding raising; (2) better sharing of FBI
intelligence; (3) easier recruitment of CIA counterterrorism informants; and (4) continuation
of Syria and Iran on the list of countries that sponsor terrorism.
U.S. Organization and Program Response
The chain of command on antiterrorism planning runs from the President through the
National Security Council’s (NSC’s) Principals Committee, through the NSC’s Deputies
Committee, a representative of which chairs a senior interagency Counterrorism and National
Preparedness Policy Coordinating Committee (PCC). The PCC oversees four working
groups charged with overseeing policy in four generic areas: (1) continuity of federal
operations; (2) preventing and responding to foreign terrorism; (3) preventing and responding
to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) attacks; and (4) preventing and responding to
cyberthreats. The State Department is designated the lead agency for countering terrorism
overseas; the Justice Department’s Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the lead agency
for domestic terrorism; and the Federal Aviation Administration is the lead for hijackings
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when a plane’s doors are closed. These roles were reaffirmed by Presidential Decision
Directive (PDD) No. 39 in June 1995. PDD 62 (Protection Against Unconventional Threats)
and PDD 63 (Critical Infrastructure Protection) of May 22, 1998: (1) established within the
NSC a National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counterterrorism
who also provides “advice” regarding the counterterrorism budget; (2) established within the
NSC two Senior Directors who report to the National Coordinator — one for infrastructure
protection and one for counterterrorism; (3) established a new interagency working group
primarily focused on domestic preparedness for WMD incidents; and (4) laid out the
architecture for critical infrastructure protection.
On February 14, 2001, President Bush signed National Security Presidential Directive
No. 1, which fine-tuned the existing NSC structure and replaced what were formerly referred
to as interagency working groups with four groups designed as Policy Coordination
Committees.
Under the current structure, intelligence information among the various agencies is
coordinated by an Intelligence Committee, chaired by a representative of the CIA. An
important policy question is whether current organizational structure brings excessive focus
on state-sponsored actions at the expense of attention on so-called “gray area” terrorist
activity (i.e., terrorist activity not clearly linked to any perpetrator, group, or
supporting/sponsoring nation). In light of the recent terrorist attacks, it is likely that a
comprehensive review of counterterrorism policy, organizational structure, and preparedness
to respond to major terrorist incidents in the United States will be undertaken. Whether PDD
62, by establishing a national terrorism coordinator at the NSC, takes too much terrorism
decisionmaking out of the realm of congressional oversight is another issue, as NSC members
generally do not testify before Congress.
A number of Administration programs focus specifically on combating international
terrorism. They include the Department of State’s (1) Antiterrorism Assistance Program
(ATA), (2) Counterterrorism Research and Development Program, and (3) Diplomatic
Security Program. The DoD Authorization Act (Title XIV) for FY1997 (P.L. 104-201) seeks
to ensure DoD assistance to federal, state, and local officials in responding to biological,
chemical, and nuclear emergencies.
Antiterrorism Assistance Program
The State Department’s antiterrorism assistance (ATA) program provides training and
equipment to foreign countries to help them improve their antiterrorism capabilities. More
than 20,000 individuals from 100 countries have received training since the program’s
inception in 1983 in such skills as crisis management, VIP protection, airport security
management, and bomb detection and deactivation. The Administration’s FY2001 and
FY2002 requests for this program were $38 million for training each year, with $38 million
appropriated in FY2001. Also requested in FY2001 was an additional $30 million for a
training facility, which was not funded. For FY2001, $4 million was requested and
appropriated for computerized border control Terrorism Interdiction Programs (TIPs). For
FY2002, $4 million was again requested. The Senate Appropriations Committee has
recommended $38 million and $4 million, respectively, for the ATA program and the TIPs
program.
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Assistance to Victims Programs
Facilitating payment of compensation to victims of terrorism by state sponsors or their
agents was the subject of legislative focus in the 106th Congress as well. P.L. 106-386,
among other things, allowed victims of terrorist acts committed by Cuba and Iran to collect
payment of judgments rendered from funds held by the U.S. government and clarified
circumstances under which immunity from jurisdiction or attachment may not apply when
victims of state sponsored terrorism seek compensation.
Counterterrorism Research and Development Program
The State Department’s Counterterrorism Research and Development Program, which
is jointly funded by the Departments of State and Defense, constitutes a response to combat
the threat posed by increasingly sophisticated equipment and explosives available to terrorist
groups. Recent projects include detectors for nuclear materials, decontaminants for chemical
and biological weapons, law enforcement and intelligence database software, and surveillance
technology. The State Department’s internal FY2001/2002 requests for this program totaled
$3 million each year, with $1.8 million appropriated in FY2001. DoD’s FY2001 request for
combating terrorism technology support totaled $41.3 million, with $49.3 million
appropriated. For FY2002, DoD requested $42.2 million.
Diplomatic Security Program
The Diplomatic Security Program of the State Department is designed to protect U.S.
personnel, information, and facilities domestically and abroad. Constructing secure facilities
abroad, providing security guards, and supporting counterintelligence are some important
elements of the program. Detection and investigation of passport and visa fraud is another
important component. The Diplomatic Security Program is contained in three budget
accounts: the Diplomatic and Consular Programs account (which covers salaries and
operating expenses such as guards and armored vehicles), the Embassy Security,
Construction, and Maintenance account (which covers our overseas offices and residences),
and the Protection of Foreign Missions and Officials account (which provides extraordinary
protection for these purposes in the United States).
The State Department FY2001 budget request for the Diplomatic Security Program
included $630 million in security for the Diplomatic and Consular Programs account ($410
million for worldwide security upgrades and about $220 million for ongoing operations and
salaries), which was appropriated; $648 million for worldwide security upgrades in the
Embassy Security, Construction, and Maintenance account, with $663 million appropriated;
and $15 million in the Protection of Foreign Missions and Officials account, which was
appropriated. The FY2002 budget request for the Diplomatic Security Program included
$713 million in security for the Diplomatic and Consular Programs account ($488 million for
worldwide security upgrades and $226 million for ongoing operations and salaries), which
was appropriated; $816 million for worldwide security upgrades in the Embassy Security,
Construction and Maintenance account and $10 million in the Protection of Foreign Missions
and Officials account, which was appropriated.
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Options for Program Enhancement
Some notable areas cited for improvement of programs to combat terrorism include
contingency planning; explosives detection; joint or multinational research, operational and
training programs/exercises; nuclear materials safeguarding; chemical/biological weapon
detection equipment development, and disaster/crisis consequence management, including
training of first responders. Some have suggested that U.S. public diplomacy/media programs
could be broadened to support antiterrorism policy objectives. As such a mission involves
not only “diplomacy,” but is also a form of “warfare,” some suggest removing this mission
from the Department of State. Cyber security remains an important area for program
enhancement. Another option includes enhancing investigative, law enforcement, and
prosecution capabilities in other countries to include the area of terrorism fundraising. An
option which has been recommended by a number of bipartisan congressional commissions
is an enhanced role for the National Academies and the National Laboratories in facilitating
more concerted and better coordinated involvement of the U.S. scientific community in
assessing threats, developing countermeasures, and in designing responses to terrorism.
State Supported Terrorism
An ongoing issue for Congress and the Administration is how to respond to state
supported or sanctioned terrorism. Terrorists operate in an environment largely dominated
by legally and geographically defined nation states. They sometimes rely on state-provided
funding, bases, equipment, technical advice, and logistical and support services. In the wake
of the September 2001 World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks, President Bush, in
addressing the nation, stressed that the United States, in responding to the attacks, will make
no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them.
The Terrorism List
The Secretary of State maintains a list of countries that have “repeatedly provided
support for acts of international terrorism.” Evidence supporting this list is drawn from the
intelligence community. Listed countries are subject to strict U.S. export controls,
particularly of dual-use technology, and selling military equipment to them is prohibited.
Providing foreign aid under the Foreign Assistance Act is also prohibited. Section 6(j) of the
1979 Export Administration Act stipulates that a validated license shall be required for export
of controlled items and technology to any country on the list. In addition, Section 509(a) of
the 1986 omnibus antiterrorism act (P.L. 99-399) bars export of munitions list items to
countries on the terrorism list. Indirect state sponsorship or sponsorship by proxy is
addressed in a second State Department terrorist category (required by P.L. 104-132) —
which is distinct from the list of state sponsors — that prohibits the sale of arms to nations
not fully cooperating with U.S. antiterrorism efforts. Strong language critical of Lebanon and
Pakistan in Patterns 2000 has prompted some to question whether these countries should be
included in the latter category of nations. The category of countries “not fully cooperating”
includes the seven state supporters of terrorism plus Afghanistan. P.L. 104-132 also requires
the withholding of foreign assistance to nations providing lethal military aid to countries on
the list of state sponsors.
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Adding and Removing Countries on the List
A complex challenge facing those charged with compiling and maintaining the list is the
degree to which diminution of hard evidence of a government’s active involvement indicates
a real change in behavior, particularly when a past history of active support or use of
terrorism as an instrument of foreign policy has been well established. Removing a country
from the list is likely to result in some level of confrontation with Congress, so the
bureaucratically easier solution is to maintain the status quo, or add to the list, but not to
delete from it.
In late January each year, under the provisions of Section 6(j) of the Export
Administration Act of 1979, as amended, the Secretary of Commerce in consultation with the
Secretary of State provides Congress with a list of countries supporting terrorism.
Compilation of the list is the result of an ongoing process. Throughout the year the
Department of State gathers data on terrorist activity worldwide, and then beginning about
November, the list is formally reviewed. Each new determination under Section 6(j) of the
Act must also be published in the Federal Register. (For removal criteria, see CRS Report
RL30613, North Korea: Terrorism List Removal?)
Paragraph 6(j)(4) of the Export Administration Act prohibits removing a country from
the list unless the President first submits a report to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs,
and the Senate Committees on Foreign Relations and on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs.
When a government comes to power (i.e., a government different from that in power at the
time of the last determination), the President’s report, submitted before the proposed
rescission would take effect, must certify that (1) there has been a fundamental change in the
leadership and policies of the government of the country concerned (this means an actual
change of government as a result of an election, coup, or some other means); (2) the new
government is not supporting acts of international terrorism; and (3) the new government has
provided assurances that it will not support acts of international terrorism in the future. When
the same government is in power, the President’s report — submitted at least 45 days
before the proposed rescission would take effect — must justify the rescission and certify
that (1) the government concerned has not provided support for international terrorism during
the preceding 6-month period; and (2) the government concerned has provided assurances
that it will not support acts of international terrorism in the future. Congress can let the
President’s action take effect, or pass legislation to block it, the latter most likely over the
President’s veto. To date, Congress has passed no such legislation or resolution, although
Syria would be the likely target of such endeavors, should the Administration act soon to seek
its removal from the terrorism list. Patterns 2000 notes that “the United States is firmly
committed to removing countries from the list once they have taken necessary steps to end
their link to terrorism.” Secretary of State Powell has suggested that a “fresh start” may well
be the case for Syria and Iran, should their offered support to the United States in the wake
of the September 11 events go beyond indicating that they are simply against one type of
terrorism, yet still support others.
Countries on the List
Currently seven countries are on the “terrorism list”: Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North
Korea, and Sudan.. (For more information on states sponsoring international terrorism, see
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Patterns of Global Terrorism (Patterns 2000), Department of State, April 2001.) Of the
seven, five are Middle Eastern nations with predominantly Muslim populations. Of these, Iran
and Iraq could currently be characterized on one extreme as active supporters of terrorism:
nations that use terrorism as an instrument of policy or warfare beyond their borders. Iran,
Iraq, and Libya are major oil producers, producing in 1999 about 11% of the world’s oil
consumption, 35% of Europe’s (OECD) oil imports, and 10.8% of Japan’s imports. Such
dependence on oil complicates universal support for sanctions against these nations.
On the other extreme, one might place countries such as Cuba or North Korea, which
at the height of the Cold War were more active, but in recent years have seemed to settle for
a more passive role of granting ongoing safe haven to previously admitted individual
terrorists. Sudan, which Patterns 2000 notes continues to serve as a safe haven for members
of terrorist groups, has by and large shut down their training camps and is engaged with the
Department of State in ongoing dialog on antiterrorism issues. Closer to the middle of an
active/passive spectrum is Libya, which grants safe haven to wanted terrorists. Syria, though
not formally detected in an active role since 1986, reportedly serves as the primary transit
point for terrorist operatives in Lebanon and for the resupply of weapons to groups in Syria
and Lebanon to project power into Israel. Syria allows groups to train in territory under its
control, placing it somewhere in the middle-to-active end of the spectrum.
Iran. Patterns 2000 names Iran as the most active — and increasingly active — state
sponsor of terrorism. According to the report, Iran continues to be deeply involved in the
planning and execution of terrorist acts by its own agents and surrogate groups. The report
indicates that it provides “increasing support” — ongoing direction, safe haven, funding,
training, weapons and other support — to a variety of radical Islamic terrorist groups,
including Hizballah in Lebanon, as well as Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) to
undermine the Middle East peace process. Iran has apparently offered some assistance to the
United States in the wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks.
Iraq. On September 13, 1990, Iraq was placed once again on the terrorism list, after
having been removed in 1982. Iraq’s ability to support terrorist activities has been limited by
U.S. and U.N. sanctions which were imposed after the Kuwait invasion. Nevertheless,
Patterns 2000 indicates that Saddam Hussein’s regime continues to murder dissidents and
provide a safe haven for a variety of Palestinian rejectionist groups. There are numerous
claims that Iraqi intelligence is behind killings of dissidents on foreign soil during 2000. Iraq
also provides active assistance to the MEK, a terrorist group opposed to the Teheran regime.
In the past, Iraq has temporarily expelled terrorists, only to invite them back later.
Libya. Libya has a long history of involvement in international terrorism. Libya was
placed on the terrorism list when it was started in December 1979. Libyan terrorism has been
sharply reduced after imposition of U.N. sanctions in the wake of Libyan involvement in the
bombings of Pan Am flight 103 and in the 1989 bombing of French UTA flight 772. The
response of the international community seems to have been relatively effective in restraining
the level of Libya’s outlaw behavior and may provide one model for future international
action. In April 2000, Libya took what Patterns 1999 noted as “an important step by
surrendering ... two Libyans accused of bombing Pan Am flight 103 ... in 1988" to a court in
The Hague.
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Syria. Syria was placed on the first terrorism list in December 1979. The nation has
a long history of using terrorists to advance its own interests, but the United States has said
that it has no evidence of Syrian government direct involvement in terrorism since 1986.
According to Patterns 2000, many major terrorist groups are known to maintain an active
presence (including training camps and operational headquarters) in Syria or in
Syrian-controlled Lebanon, and Syria has allowed Iran to supply Hizballah with weaponry via
Damascus. Providing such support, free movement, and safe haven has caused prominent
Members of Congress to contend that Syria should remain on the terrorism list. Syria has
offered the United States “assistance” in wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks.
Sudan. Sudan was added to the terrorism list in August 1993. Sudan continues to
harbor members of some of the world’s most violent organizations and, according to Patterns
2000, continues to serve as a safe haven for a number of terrorist organizations, including
Palestine Islamic Jihad, Hamas, and bin Laden’s al-Qaida organization. Egypt and Ethiopia
have charged the Sudanese government with involvement in a failed assassination attempt
against President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt while he was in Ethiopia in June 1995. Sudan,
however, in mid-2000 entered into a counterterrorism dialog with the United States; it has
signed all 12 international antiterrorism conventions; and has reportedly “by and large” shut
down terrorist training camps on its territory, steps some observers suggest pave the way for
its removal from the terrorism list. Sudan has reportedly offered use of its airspace and
sharing of intelligence to the United States in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Cuba. Fidel Castro’s government has a long history of providing arms and training to
terrorist organizations. A Cold War carryover, Cuba was added to the 1982 U.S. list of
countries supporting international terrorism based on its support for the M-19 guerrilla
organization in Colombia. Patterns 2000 does not cite evidence that Cuban officials were
directly involved in sponsoring an act of terrorism in 2000, but notes that Havana remains a
safe haven to several international terrorists, and U.S. fugitives as well. Implicit in Patterns
2000 is the sense that Cuba no longer actively supports armed struggles in Latin America or
elsewhere.
North Korea. North Korea was added to the “official” list of countries supporting
terrorism because of its implication in the bombing of a South Korean airliner on November
29, 1987, which killed 115 persons. According to the State Department, North Korea is not
conclusively linked to any terrorist acts since 1987. Patterns 2000 notes that North Korea
has engaged in terrorism talks with the United States, has reiterated its opposition to
terrorism, and has “agreed to support international actions against such activity.”
List Reform Options
An ongoing issue for Congress and the Administration is how to respond to state
supported or sanctioned terrorism. Congress can always legislate special sanctions against
a rogue regime, but a wide range of sanctions is already triggered if a nation is included on
the State Department’s list of state sponsors of terrorism. Another strategy might be to
“focus” the current list by signaling to the Administration a desire that the less-active nations
should be removed. Although it is the executive branch that determines the composition of
the state sponsors of terrorism list, the executive looks to Congress for signals — especially
those that might indicate that removal of a country would be met by congressional opposition.
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Critics of the current State Department list argue that it has become too politicized and that
nations are retained on the list as Cold War carryovers or for other grounds not directly
related to active state support of terrorism, such as religious persecution, drug trafficking,
counterfeiting, or other criminal activity. One option for Congress, short of suggesting that
non-active states be removed from the list, might be to consider splitting the list into an active
supporters list and a passive supporters list of states that countenance terrorism or could be
doing more to stop it. Supporters of this kind of move argue that it would provide support
to policies targeting states that may have had an active role in the perpetration of the
September 11 attacks on America, without lumping more “innocent” states into the same
category as active perpetrators. A downside, however, of such an approach, is that it might
be seen as a weakening of the U.S. resolve to combat more passive forms of state supported
terrorism, thereby encouraging enhanced use of such activity worldwide.
Another approach available to Congress would involve changing what has been
characterized as the all-or-nothing “blunderbuss” approach to sanctions against state
supporters of terrorism. Congress, for example, could codify a menu or portfolio of sanctions
that the executive branch could tailor to meet the level of state support as well as the level of
cooperation of a particular state. Such measures could also be used to prod states to take
further steps against fundraising efforts of self-financed groups such as al-Qaida.
An Informal Watchlist?
Some suggest that there is utility in drawing to Congress’ attention countries that do not
currently qualify for inclusion in the terrorism list but where added scrutiny may be warranted.
Such a list would be similar to the Attorney General’s National Security Threat List that
includes sponsors of international terrorism, the activities of which warrant monitoring by the
FBI within the United States. Although informal, it would be controversial and speculative.
But it would reflect legitimate concerns of those in the intelligence and policy community and
might serve as an informal warning mechanism to countries that their activities are being
scrutinized. For example, the State Department warned Pakistan in January 1993 that it was
under “active continuing review” to determine whether it should be placed on the terrorism
list. When the list came out in April 1993, Pakistan was not on it. A similar warning was
issued to Pakistan in January 2000. (See CRS Issue Brief IB94041, Pakistan-U.S. Relations.)
Sudan was also warned that it was being subjected to special review prior to its being placed
on the terrorism list in August 1993.
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