97-949 F
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Economic Sanctions to Achieve
U.S. Foreign Policy Goals:
Discussion and Guide to Current Law
Updated June 5, 1998
Dianne E. Rennack
Analyst in Foreign Policy Legislation
Robert D. Shuey
Specialist in U.S. Foreign Policy and National Defense
Foreign Affairs and National Defense Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

ABSTRACT
This report provides background on foreign policy sanctions and the events that might
necessitate their use, criteria to consider when determining if sanctions are appropriate,
approaches that might be effective, and aspects of the use of sanctions that are sometimes
overlooked or not considered fully. The report also provides an uncomplicated map of where
sanctions policies and options currently may be found in U.S. law.

Economic Sanctions to Achieve
U.S. Foreign Policy Goals:
Discussion and Guide to Current Law
Summary
On June 4, 1998, Senator Richard Lugar circulated a "Dear Colleague" letter,
stating it was his intention at the earliest opportunity to offer an amendment on the
floor based on S. 1413, the "Enhancement of Trade, Security, and Human Rights
through Sanctions Reform Act." S. 1413 — its House counterpart is H.R. 2708,
introduced by Representative Hamilton and others — seeks to clarify the use of
unilateral sanctions in U.S. foreign policy imposed at the initiative of either the
Administration or Congress. S. 1413/H.R. 2708 would revise procedures both
branches would follow before enacting or imposing sanctions, and would require
extensive reporting as to the expected costs and benefits of imposing sanctions. The
measures were considered unlikely to be enacted in this Congress as freestanding bills.
Senator Lugar's announcement, however, increases the odds of enactment. Press
reports suggest that the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1999 (S.
2057), currently under Senate consideration, is the most likely legislative vehicle for
such an amendment.
The 105 Congress, otherwise,
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currently has under consideration new sanctions
legislation specifically relating to religious persecution, proliferation of weapons of
mass destruction, conventional arms sales and transfers, export controls, terrorism,
international narcotics control, travel restrictions, environment, workers rights
(including issues of prison or forced labor and child labor), humanitarian donations
of food and medicine, war crimes, torture, and human rights. Other, more routine,
legislative initiatives (annual appropriations bills, for example) have become the means
to target individual countries for behavior of which the United States disapproves.
Economic sanctions typically include measures such as trade embargoes; restrictions
on particular exports or imports; denial of foreign assistance, loans, and investments;
or control of foreign assets and economic transactions that involve U.S. citizens or
businesses.
Some suggest that there is a post-Cold War trend toward sanctions becoming
the method of first resort in foreign policy. A recent National Association of
Manufacturers report (March 1997) states that 61 U.S. laws and executive orders
have been enacted in the last four years alone--targeting 35 countries--for foreign
policy purposes. A frequently cited report issued by the Institute for International
Economics (April 1997) concludes that U.S. unilateral sanctions may have cost U.S.
businesses some $15-19 billion in 1995 alone. Others contend that sanctions,
unilateral or otherwise, are a peacetime means to improving international behavior in
important areas such as human rights or weapons proliferation, and should not be
avoided solely for trade concerns.
This report provides background on foreign policy sanctions and the events that
might necessitate their use, criteria to consider when determining if sanctions are
appropriate, approaches that might be effective, and aspects of the use of sanctions
that are sometimes overlooked or not considered fully.

Contents
Defining Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Issues Related to Economic Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Why do we apply sanctions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What objectives does the U.S. government seek to achieve when it imposes
sanctions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Who imposes sanctions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
What tools are available? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
How likely is it that sanctions will achieve the stated goal? . . . . . . . . . 4
What secondary consequences might sanctions have? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
What change is required for the sanctions to be lifted? . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Would multilateral sanctions be more desirable and achievable? . . . . . 6
Current Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
General U.S. national security or foreign policy objectives . . . . . . . . . 7
U.S. trade policy legislation sometimes used
for foreign policy objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Extradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Proliferation, generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Missile proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Nuclear proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chemical/Biological weapons proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Communism (Marxist-Leninist countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Coercive family planning programs (including abortion and involuntary
sterilization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Human rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Worker rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Use of forced/prison/convict labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Environmental degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Military coups d'état . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Debt arrearages, default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
United Nations or other international organization participation . . . . 14
Emigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Diplomatic relations (including action taken when severed) . . . . . . . 15
Drugs (international narcotics control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Missing in action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Armed conflict (engaging against U.S. Armed Forces) . . . . . . . . . . . 15
World economy disruption, vital commodities disruption . . . . . . . . . 15
Parking fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Humanitarian assistance disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Expropriation, confiscation, nationalization, mob action, or other seizure
of or threat to property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Crime Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO); Palestinian Authority . . . . 16
Current Law Related to Specific Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Bosnia-Hercegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Burma (Myanmar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Congo (former Zaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Mauritania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
North Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Panama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
People's Republic of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Russia (see also [Former] Soviet Union/East Bloc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Serbia and Montenegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
[Former] Soviet Union/East Bloc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Ukraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Vietnam (Socialist Republic of) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Economic Sanctions to Achieve
U.S. Foreign Policy Goals:
Discussion and Guide to Current Law
Both the Congress and the President in recent years have increasingly relied on
economic sanctions as a means to establish and promote their foreign policy
objectives. The 105 Congress currently has under consideration legislation relating
th
to the procedure for drafting new sanctions regimes, as well as religious persecution,
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, conventional arms sales and transfers,
export controls, terrorism, international narcotics control, travel restrictions,
environment, workers rights (including issues of prison or forced labor and child
labor), humanitarian donations of food and medicine, war crimes, torture, and human
rights. Legislative initiatives to address particular countries' behavior--most recently
Iran, Libya, Iraq, Cuba, Sudan, China, Burma, and Russia--have been debated
frequently throughout government and the business community, both in the United
States and in international fora. Sanctions to promote foreign policy objectives have
been offered regularly during the consideration of annual appropriations bills and
authorization measures.
In the fall of 1997 Representative Hamilton and Senator Lugar introduced
identical bills in their respective chambers that would, in the words of the proposals'
preambles, "provide a framework for consideration by the legislative and executive
branches of unilateral economic sanctions." H.R. 2708/S. 1413, the "Enhancement
of Trade, Security, and Human Rights through Sanctions Reform Act," seeks to
clarify the use of unilateral sanctions in U.S. foreign policy imposed at the initiative
of either the Administration or Congress. The bills would revise procedures both
branches follow before enacting or imposing sanctions, and would require extensive
reporting as to the expected costs and benefits of imposing sanctions. The measures
were considered unlikely to be enacted in this Congress, until Senator Lugar, on June
4, 1998, circulated a "Dear Colleague" letter, stating it was his intention to offer an
amendment on the floor based on S. 1413 at the earliest opportunity. Press reports
suggest that the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1999 (S. 2057),
currently under Senate consideration, is the most likely legislative vehicle for such an
amendment.
This report provides background on the range of actions that might be termed
sanctions, and a set of criteria that legislators might consider when proposing them,
to help legislators judge when sanctions might be appropriate and the approach that
might be the most effective. Provided as well is an uncomplicated "map" of where
sanctions policies and options currently may be found in U.S. law.

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Defining Economic Sanctions
Generally, economic sanctions might be defined as "coercive economic measures
taken against one or more countries to force a change in policies, or at least to
demonstrate a country's opinion about the other's policies."1 The most-often quoted
study on sanctions defines the term as "...the deliberate, government-inspired
withdrawal, or threat of withdrawal, of customary trade or financial relations."2
Economic sanctions typically include measures such as trade embargoes; restrictions
on particular exports or imports; denial of foreign assistance, loans, and investments;
or control of foreign assets and economic transactions that involve U.S. citizens or
businesses. These definitions of economic sanctions would exclude diplomatic
démarches, reductions in embassy staff or closing of embassies, mobilizing armed
forces or going to war--tools clearly intended to change another country's behavior
through other than economic means. The use of "carrots" (e.g., granting most-
favored-nation status for another year or offering economic or military assistance to
a country if it conforms to certain standards) would not qualify as a sanction.
Issues Related to Economic Sanctions
In any sanctions debate, one might consider the following questions to assess the
benefits and/or costs of imposing sanctions against a country, company, or individual:
Why do we apply sanctions? Economic sanctions are used when one country
(or alliance of countries) wants to condemn or coerce change in the behavior of
another country--its government, individuals, or businesses--that violates important
international standards or threaten national interests. The U.S. government might
impose sanctions when other efforts to change behavior have failed, such as
diplomacy, public suasion, cultural and scientific exchanges, state visits, targeted
technical assistance, military training and education, or other friendly means.
Sanctions might be positioned at the middle of a continuum, between the extremes of
complete cooperation and agreement at one end, and to the other end open hostility,
use of force, or all-out war. The United States has aimed sanctions at governments
that consistently violate internationally recognized human rights; at governments that
sponsor international terrorism or harbor terrorists from elsewhere; at governments,
individuals or corporations that engage in the proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction; at individuals or governments that traffic narcotics; at governments that
conduct aggression against their neighbors, threaten regional stability, or threaten
U.S. security or foreign policy interests.
What objectives does the U.S. government seek to achieve when it imposes
sanctions? United States policymakers do not always state the goals or objectives
they hope to accomplish through the imposition of economic sanctions. Sanctions
Carter,
1
Barry E., International Economic Sanctions: Improving the Haphazard U.S. Legal
Regime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. P. 4.
2Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, Jeffrey J. Schott and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Economic Sanctions
Reconsidered: History and Current Policy.
Washington, DC: Institute for International
Economics, 1990 (second edition). P. 2.

CRS-3
might be imposed when taking no action seems not enough of a response, but at the
same time policymakers might resist committing to stronger measures. Generally,
however, the U.S. government may choose to impose sanctions to:
! express its condemnation of a particular practice such as military aggression;
human rights violations; militarization that destabilizes a country, its neighbors
or the region; proliferation of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons or
missiles; political, economic, or military intimidation; terrorism; drug
trafficking; or extreme national political policies contrary to basic interests of
values of the United States (e.g., apartheid, communism);
! punish those engaged in objectionable behavior and deter its repetition;
! make it more expensive, difficult, or time-consuming to engage in
objectionable behavior;
! block the flow of economic support that could be used by the targeted entity
against the United States or U.S. interests;
! dissuade others from engaging in objectionable behavior;
! isolate a targeted country (or company or individual);
! force a change or termination of objectionable behavior; or
! coerce a change in the leadership or form of government in a targeted country.
Who imposes sanctions? The President has broad authority to impose
sanctions, either pursuant to declaring an national emergency and then invoking
powers vested in his office in the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, or
by exercising authority stated in various Public Laws (some of which are described
at the end of this report). In other instances, Congress might take the lead, either by
conferring new Presidential authority to impose sanctions, or by requiring sanctions
to be imposed unless the President determines and certifies that certain conditions
have been met. Some sanctions are mandatory and are triggered automatically when
certain conditions exist. Congress, for example, has required the imposition of
sanctions when duly elected governments are overthrown by military coup d'etat, or
when any non-nuclear weapon state explodes a nuclear device. Some behavior that
would trigger the imposition of sanctions, such as proliferation or support of
international terrorism, requires that the President or Secretary of State determine and
certify that a violation of a standard has occurred. The Administration has
considerable flexibility in making such determinations and also has the authority to
waive sanctions when imposed.
What tools are available? All of the following economic policy tools have been
used at one time or another, triggered by a variety of repugnant behaviors.3
Government
3
leaders also have a range of diplomatic, political, cultural, and military tools at
(continued...)

CRS-4
! Foreign assistance, all or some programs, could be terminated, suspended,
limited, conditioned, or prohibited. Foreign assistance to particular
organizations that operate in the targeted country could be curtailed. U.S.
government arms sales and transfers, military assistance, and International
Military Education and Training (IMET) funding could be similarly restricted.
Scientific and technological cooperation, assistance, and exchanges could be
reduced or halted.
! Both public and private sector financial transactions could be restricted; assets
in U.S. jurisdictions could be seized or frozen, or transactions related to travel
or other forms of exchange could be limited or prohibited.
! Importation and exportation of some or all commodities could be curtailed by
denying licenses, closing off shipping terminuses, or limiting related
transactions.
! Government procurement contracts could be canceled or denied.
! Negative votes on loans, credits, or grants in international financial institutions
could be cast, or the United States could abstain in voting.
! Trade agreements or other bilateral accords could be abrogated, made
conditional, or not renewed. Beneficial trade status could be denied,
withdrawn, or made conditional. Trade and import quotas for particular
commodities could be lessened or eliminated altogether. The U.S. tax code
could be amended to discourage commerce with a sanctioned state.
! Funding for investment, through the Overseas Private Investment Corporation,
Trade and Development Agency, or Export-Import Bank, could be curtailed.
! Aviation, maritime, and surface access to the United States could be canceled
or denied.
! Certain acts associated with sanctionable behavior could be made a criminal
offense--making the targeted individual subject to fines or imprisonment.
Additionally, sanctions could be applied against those individuals, businesses,
or countries that continue to trade with or support targeted individuals,
businesses, or countries.
How likely is it that sanctions will achieve the stated goal? Effectiveness is
the most difficult aspect of sanctions policy to evaluate. The impact, cost and benefit
of sanctions cannot be considered in a vacuum. A recent study considers geographic
proximity, common language, volume of trade, a country's relative wealth, and
membership in a common trading bloc all factors that might determine the success or
(...continued)
3
their disposal to use instead of or in conjunction with economic sanctions.

CRS-5
failure of a unilaterally imposed sanctions regime. One should also consider th
4
e
United States' relative importance--in terms of trade, culture, scientific and intellectual
exchanges, and history--to the targeted country. How important to the targeted
country is our economic cooperation? Is the United States a significant trading
partner, or only marginally engaged? Consider, for example, that at the time that
sanctions were imposed against the former Yugoslavia, the United States took in only
about 5 percent of that country's exports. The support of more substantial trading
partners in Europe was needed to have any hope of having an impact.
United States businesses frequently argue that U.S. sanctions that hinder their
exports or imports in turn benefit their foreign competitors. Some contend that
staying engaged as trading partners or investors in a problem country will have better
long-term effect. The United States seeks to isolate Cuba, for example, while Cuba's
European trading partners contend that full trade relations afford them opportunities
to discuss human rights concerns with the island nation.
Of course, relatively modest goals that do not challenge the vital interests of the
targeted country or person are more likely to be achieved than are far-reaching goals,
such as a change in the form of government, change in its leadership, or relinquishing
territory. The smaller the goal, the more likely it can be achieved. Similarly, the
lesser the cost of imposing sanctions, the more sellable and manageable the policy will
be to the implementing country or alliance of countries.
What secondary consequences might sanctions have? Whether or not
successful in achieving their central purpose, sanctions sometimes have undesirable--
perhaps unexpected--fallout. Sanctions against former Yugoslavia, for example, were
particularly hard on the economies of Serbia's neighboring states. At the same time,
some analysts argue, sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro actually bolstered
nationalist political movements there. In another instance, long-standing sanctions
against South Africa in the 1980s, some speculate, led that nation to develop weapons
manufacturing capabilities--conventional and nuclear--that remain cause for concern
today. Most recently, when the United States campaigned for European friends to
join in sanctions against Iran by blocking investment in Iran's oil fields in 1995, for
example, nearly all of Europe declined, pointing out that they were running out of fuel
sources that were not under some sanctions regime. A short while later, trading
partners of Nigeria found themselves wanting to punish that country for human rights
issues but were unable to restrict trade with yet another oil producer.
Other secondary--and unintended--consequences arise in nearly all cases where
sanctions are applied for some duration. Analysts express concern for the impact on
the non-governmental population, particularly if food, medicine, or other basic human
needs are affected. A recent study of the impact of U.S. sanctions policy on health
and nutrition in Cuba concluded that U.S. restrictions on that country's ability to
import food and medicine has "dramatically harmed the health and nutrition of large
Hufbauer,
4
Gary Clyde and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Tess Cyrus, and Elizabeth Winston. U.S.
Economic Sanctions: Their Impact on Trade, Jobs, and Wages. Washington, DC: Institute
for International Economics, 1997. 17 p. and tables.

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numbers of ordinary Cuban citizens." The State Department has countered thes
5
e
charges, incidentally, with documentation of increased humanitarian shipments of
medicine and other health-related supplies to Cuba from the United States in recent
years, and with statistics that indict the Cuban government for misuse of their own
treasury and inattention to its own people. Indeed, the State Department reports that
the United States, since 1992, has become the largest donor of humanitarian
assistance to Cuba. Similar reports abound regarding Iraq and the impact of U.N.-
6
sponsored multilateral sanctions, with those supporting sanctions and those favoring
lifting the sanctions for humanitarian reasons arguing equally passionately.
Nearer to home, loss of trade, the impact on U.S. jobs, potential loss of
procurement contracts or other trade relations, loss of confidence in the reliability of
American suppliers subject to unilateral economic prohibitions, all need to be factored
in. How do such costs compare to the benefit of achieving the stated goal?
What change is required for the sanctions to be lifted? When sanctions are
imposed via enactment of public law, what is required to terminate the restrictions is
usually clearly stated. If a policy is unevenly applied, however, the standard might be
less clear. China, for example, as a nonmarket economy, is denied permanent most-
favored nation status on the basis of laws relating to trade, nonmarket economies, and
emigration. The annual debate to renew China's MFN status, however, rarely has
much to do with freedom of emigration of China's population. If sanctions are applied
for a lengthy period, other problems arise, or the circumstances that triggered the
sanctions at the outset might evolve. The sought after change in behavior could be
redefined over time, or multilateral or domestic support for the sanctions could
deteriorate. In some instances, sanctions are imposed to achieve a goal that is
unclear, ever-changing, or perhaps unattainable. In such circumstances, if the
sanctions are lifted or waived, it may effectively signal a friendly change of policy.
If the U.S. government terminates sanctions when it appears that the targeted country
has not budged at all from its sanctionable behavior, however, future attempts to
achieve a standard of behavior through sanctions may be compromised. The
constantly changing political landscape of the former Yugoslavia over the last seven
years provides numerous incidents to demonstrate the dilemma of sending confusing
signals to allies as well as the sanctioned state..
Would multilateral sanctions be more desirable and achievable? It is
generally agreed that sanctions imposed by all or most of the nations on which a
targeted country relies for trade and support (such as through the United Nations or
other multinational organization) stand a much better chance of having an impact than
unilateral restrictions or prohibitions. Consensus is difficult to reach among countries
considering another country's behavior, however, and as a result multilateral sanctions
are imposed infrequently. Comprehensive multilateral sanctions are even more rare.
Attempts that fail to solidify international opinion against one country's objectionable
behavior can actually give support to those committing the behavior (for example,
De
5
nial of Food and Medicine: The Impact of the U.S. Embargo on Health & Nutrition in
Cuba, American Association for World Health. March 1997.
"The
6
U.S. Embargo and Health Care in Cuba: Myth Versus Reality," U.S. Department of
State, Press Statement, May 14, 1997.

CRS-7
every year the United States is condemned by the U.N. General Assembly for its
unilateral sanctions regime against Cuba).
Current Law
Each sanction has its own duration, severity, and comprehensiveness or
selectivity. Each section of law has its own terms for triggering the imposition, as
well as reporting on, easing or tightening, waiving, and terminating the sanction.
Some laws make sanctions mandatory; others provide discretionary authority to the
President or his delegate to impose sanctions. Nearly all laws include some sort of
waiver authority that allows the President to not impose the sanction even if an
incident warrants it. Only a few laws specifically spell out what recourse Congress
might take when it finds itself in disagreement with the executive branch on the
imposition, waiving, or termination of a sanction.
Some laws generally authorize the Executive branch to make and carry out
foreign policy and would not be considered sanctions legislation at first glance. Such
authority is often cited when the President changes policy to the detriment of a
targeted country. Using legislative authority to cut foreign assistance, for example,
might be an administrative decision, or it might be a step taken to punish a country in
violation of any number of international standards. Disallowing participation in
various trade-supporting programs (such as the Overseas Private Investment
Corporation or the Export-Import Bank) might be a change in policy to recognize a
country's graduation from such needs, or it might be considered a punitive step taken
to change the recipient country's behavior.
The following list is intended to serve only as a guide to where the authority to
impose sanctions stands in the law. Careful reading of the public law text is required
to determine the intent of the sanctions, what triggers their imposition, the extent of
the sanction, and what is required to have the restrictions lifted. The list groups laws
into broad foreign policy categories. A brief note of what form the sanction might
take is included parenthetically. Many of the restrictions of foreign assistance will be
found in the FY1998 foreign operations appropriations act; such a law is enacted
anew each fiscal year (or, in absence of an appropriations act, a continuing resolution
may extend the terms of a previous law). For specific countries, any law written
specifically to address conditions in, or relations with, that country would apply, but
other laws of general effect written to address an issue might apply to that country as
well. This list should not be considered comprehensive but is an index of basic
sanctions legislation.
General U.S. national security or foreign policy objectives.
§ 621, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2381)
(authorizes President to administer foreign assistance programs and policy;
authorizes the President to prohibit foreign assistance because of illegal
activities, such as fraud or corruption)
§ 633A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2393a)
(prohibits foreign assistance when certain informational requests are not
met by recipient)

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§ 3, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2753) (authorizes
President to administer U.S. government arms sales and transfers with
conditions and exceptions)
§ 38, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2778) (authorizes
the President to limit sales and transfers in interest of world peace and
security of United States. Violation of terms of section or related
regulations may result in $1 million fine, 10-year imprisonment, or both)
§ 42, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2791) (authorizes
the President to cancel arms sales, credits, or contracts on national security
grounds)
§ 5(b), Trading with the Enemy Act (Public Law 65-91; 50 USC App. 5(b))7
(authorizes the President to investigate, regulate, or prohibit transactions,
or to freeze assets)
Title II, National Emergencies Act (Public Law 94-412; 50 USC 1621, 1622)
(authorizes declaration and administration of national emergencies--
required to administer authority under International Emergency Economic
Powers Act)
§ 203, International Emergency Economic Powers Act (Public Law 95-223; 50
USC 1701) (authorizes control or prohibition of most financial
transactions)
§ 2(b)(5)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(5)(B)) (restricts Export-Import Bank services with country engaged
in armed conflict against U.S. armed forces)
§ 5, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2404)
(imposes national security export controls)
§ 6, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2405)
(imposes foreign policy export controls)
§ 11, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2410) (imposes penalties for violations of Act, generally)
§ 11A, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2410a) (prohibits contracts, importation for regulations violators)
§ 233, Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (Public Law 87-794; 19 USC 1864)
(authorizes President to sanction importation for violations of sec. 5 Export
Administration Act national security controls)
U.S. trade policy legislation sometimes used for foreign policy objectives.
§ 125, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2135) (authorizes
President to terminate or withdraw from trade agreements)
§ 126, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2136) (authorizes
President to terminate or withdraw from trade agreements where reciprocal
nondiscriminatory treatment has not been upheld)
§ 604, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2483) (authorizes
President to change the Harmonized Tariff Schedules)
§ 212(b)(4), (5), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67;
19 USC 2702(b)(4), (5)) (denies beneficiary country status)
7The Trading with the Enemy Act continues to apply only to Cuba and North Korea.
Presidential authority to impose similar national emergency-related sanctions may be found
in the National Emergencies Act and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act.

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§ 232, Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (Public Law 87-794; 19 USC 1862)
(authorizes President to set duties or import restrictions based on national
security issues)
§ 620(d), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2370(d)) (prohibits foreign assistance loans)
Extradition.
§ 212(b)(6) Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19
USC 2702(b)(6)) (denies beneficiary country status)
Proliferation, generally.
§ 620(s), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(s))
(conditions foreign assistance and loans)
§ 3(f), Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2753(f))
(prohibits sales or leases to nuclear explosive device proliferators)
§ 38, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2778) (establishes
penalty for violating U.S. import/export terms for defense articles and
services)
§ 6(k), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2405(k)) (restricts exportation)
§ 1211, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998 (Public Law
105-85) (restricts exportation of high performance computers)
Missile proliferation.
§§ 72, 73, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2797a,
2797b) (restricts contracts, denies, export licenses, may deny importation)
§ 6(l), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2405(l)) (restricts exportation)
§ 11B, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2410b) (restricts contracts, denies export licenses, may deny importation)
Nuclear proliferation.
§§ 101, 102, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2799aa,
2799aa-1) (prohibits foreign or military assistance)
§ 701(b), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC
262d(b)) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U.S.
national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental
protection, human rights)
§ 2(b)(4), 2(b)(5)(C) Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12
USC 635(b)(4)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank support)
§ 5(b), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2404) (restricts exports for national security reasons)
Export-Import Bank of the United States, title I, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2386) (prohibits Export-Import Bank funding to other
than non-nuclear weapon state, if that state detonates a nuclear explosive
after November 26, 1997)

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§ 129, Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (Public Law 83-703; 42 USC 2158)
(prohibits transfer of nuclear materials, equipment, related technology)
§ 304(b), Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-242; 42 USC
2155a) (authorizes Department of Commerce to regulate exports
significant to nuclear explosion purposes)
§ 402, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-242; 42 USC
2153a) (prohibits exports related to nuclear enrichment)
§ 821, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22
USC 3201 note) (prohibits contracts with individuals)
§ 823, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22
USC 3201 note) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 824, Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 (Public Law 103-236; 22
USC 3201 note) (prohibits financial institutions from financing certain
transactions)
§ 620G, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2378a)
(prohibits foreign assistance for most sales of antitank shells containing
depleted uranium penetrating component)
Chemical/Biological weapons proliferation.
§ 81, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2798) (requires
import and U.S. government procurement sanctions against CW/BW
proliferators)
§ 6(m), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2405(m)) (restricts exportation)
§ 11C, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2410c) (requires import and U.S. government procurement sanctions
against CW/BW proliferators)
§ 307, Chemical and Biological Weapons Control and Warfare Elimination Act
of 1991 (Public Law 102-182; 22 USC 5605) (terminates most foreign
assistance, arms sales, certain exports; may restrict international financial
institution support, U.S. bank support, exports, imports, diplomatic
relations, aviation access to United States)
§ 2332c, 18 USC (added by § 521, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
Act of 1996) (makes use of chemical weapon in certain instances a criminal
offense)
Communism (Marxist-Leninist countries).
§ 620(f), (h), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2370(f), (h)) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 2(b)(2), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(2)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank transactions with Marxist-
Leninist state)
§ 502(b)(1), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (denies
beneficiary developing country status)
§ 5(b), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2404) (authorizes the President to restrict exportation to Communist states,
to states with policies "adverse to the national security interests of the
United States")
§ 43, Bretton Woods Agreements Act (Public Law 79-171; 22 USC 286aa)
(opposes international financial institution support)

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§ 212(b)(1), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19
USC 2702(b)(1)) (denies beneficiary country status)
Coercive family planning programs (including abortion and involuntary
sterilization).
§ 104(f), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (prohibits development assistance from
being made available for coercive family planning programs)
Development Assistance, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and
Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111
Stat. 2389) (prohibits development assistance from being made available for
coercive family planning programs)
§ 518, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2411) (prohibits
development assistance from being made available for coercive family
planning programs or for lobbying for or against abortion)
Human rights.
§ 116, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2151n)
(prohibits most U.S. foreign economic assistance to any country the
government of which engages in a "consistent pattern of gross violations
of internationally recognized human rights")
§ 502B, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2304)
(prohibits most U.S. security assistance to any country the government of
which engages in a "consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally
recognized human rights")
§ 239(i), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2199(i))
(requires Overseas Private Investment Corporation to consider human
rights when conducting programs)
§ 660, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2420)
(prohibits funds for police training)
§ 701(a), (b), (f) International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22
USC 262d) (opposes bank loans)
§ 570, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2429) (prohibits
foreign assistance to security forces of any foreign country if Secretary of
state "has credible evidence that such unit has committed gross violations
of human rights")
§ 579, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208; 22
U.S.C. 262k-2) (opposes most international financial institution
transactions for any country with a custom of female genital mutilation that
has not taken steps to improve education to prevent such practices)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U.S.
national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental
protection, human rights, child labor)
War Crimes.
§ 561, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2426) (prohibits

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foreign assistance, transactions under the Arms Export Control Act, and
international financial institution support to any country that knowingly
grants sanctuary to war criminals indicted by the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda, those indicted by any other international tribunal in
good standing under international law, or those indicted for war crimes
associated with the Nazi government of Germany)
§ 573, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2430) (prohibits
foreign assistance (excluding humanitarian, democratization, or border
protection assistance, U.S. Armed Forces in Bosnia-requested project
support, funds to implement the Brcko Arbital Decision, Dayton
Agreement-related monetary or fiscal policy support, or direct lending to
a non-sanctioned entity), transactions under the Arms Export Control Act,
and international financial institution support to any country, entity or
canton where the Secretary of State has found and determined that
authorities of that entity have failed to take necessary and significant steps
to apprehend and transfer to the International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia any indicted person)
Worker rights.
§ 231A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2191a)
(limits Overseas Private Investment Corporation activities)
§§ 502(b)(7), (c)(7), 504, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC
2462, 2464) (authorizes the President to take into account country's worker
rights record when considering beneficiary developing country status)
§ 212(b)(7) Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67; 19
USC 2702(b)(7)) (denies beneficiary country status)
§ 538, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2417) (prohibits
foreign assistance to projects that contribute to the violation of
internationally recognized worker rights as defined in § 502(a)(4) of the
Trade Act of 1974)
Use of forced/prison/convict labor.
§ 307, Tariff Act of 1930 (Public Law 71-361; 19 USC 1307) (prohibits
importation of goods produced or manufactured with prison labor)
Environmental degradation.
§ 118, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2151p-1)
(denies foreign assistance related to deforestation)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Export-Import Bank support where President
determines in U.S. national interests related to terrorism, nuclear
proliferation, environmental protection, human rights)
§ 533, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1991 (Public Law 101-513; 22 USC 262l) (requires
U.S. Executive Directors of multilateral development banks to promote
global climate change programs--includes voting against or abstaining on
loans)

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§ 609(b), Sea Turtle Conservation provisions (Public Law 101-162; 16 USC
1537 note) (bans importation of shrimp and shrimp products that harvest
of which adversely affects sea turtle populations, unless President
determines that government of harvester documents regulatory programs
and sea turtle population security)
§ 901, Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act (Public Law 101-627; 16
USC 1835) (authorizes punitive measure against those found to have
mislabeled tuna products for distribution in the United States)
Military coups d'état.
§ 508, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
foreign assistance)
Debt arrearages, default.
§ 620(c), (q) Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2370) (prohibits or suspends foreign assistance; for FY1998, not applicable
for Nicaragua and Liberia, and for narcotics-related assistance for FY1998,
not applicable for Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru)
§ 512, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2408) (prohibits
foreign assistance; for FY1998, not applicable for Nicaragua and Liberia,
and for narcotics-related assistance for FY1998, not applicable for
Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru)
Terrorism.
§ 620A, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2371)
(prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620G, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2377)
(prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620H, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2378)
(prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 40, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2780) (prohibits
sale, transfer, lease, loan, grant, credit, foreign assistance associated with
munitions items to terrorist states)
§ 40A, Arms Export Control Act (Public Law 90-629; 22 USC 2781) (prohibits
sale or license for export of defense articles or defense services to country
determined by President, in a fiscal year, to be not cooperating with U.S.
antiterrorism efforts)
§ 505, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public
Law 99-83; 22 USC 2349aa-9) (authorizes the President to ban importation
of goods and services from state found to support international terrorism)
§ 701(a)(2), (f), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22
USC 262d(a)(2), (f)) (opposes international financial institution loans to
those offering refuge to skyjackers)
§ 1621, International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22 USC
262p-4q) (opposes International financial institution loans to terrorist
states)

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§ 6, Bretton Woods Agreements Act Amendments, 1978 (Public Law 95-435;
22 USC 286e-11) (requires opposition to International Monetary Fund
assistance)
§ 502(b)(6), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462)
§ 6(j), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2405(j)) ("Fenwick amendment," requires export licenses)
§ 527, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2413) (prohibits
bilateral foreign assistance)
§ 550, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2421) (prohibits
foreign assistance to any country providing lethal military equipment to a
terrorist state)
§ 2332b, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
Act of 1996) (makes terrorist acts that transcend national boundaries a
criminal offense)
§ 2332d, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
Act of 1996) (makes financial transactions with a terrorist state a criminal
offense)
§ 2339A, 18 USC (added by § 321, Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty
Act of 1996) (makes providing material support to a terrorist or terrorist
state a criminal offense)
§ 2(b)(1)(B), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(1)(B)) (denies Bank support where President determines in U.S.
national interests related to terrorism, nuclear proliferation, environmental
protection, human rights)
United Nations or other international organization participation.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 620(u), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2370(u)) (conditions foreign assistance on arrearage of UN dues)
§ 5, United Nations Participation Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-264; 22 USC
287c) (restricts economic and communications relations)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 534, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2416) (prohibits
foreign assistance and transactions under the Arms Export Control Act to
any country not in compliance with U.N. sanctions against Iraq, Serbia and
Montenegro; authorizes the President to impose importation sanctions on
the same countries)
§ 582, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2435) (reduces

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foreign assistance to any country not in compliance with U.N. sanctions
imposed against Libya)
Emigration.
§ 402, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2432) ("Jackson-Vanik
amendment," restricts commercial agreements, denies most-favored-nation
status)
Diplomatic relations (including action taken when severed).
§ 620(t), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(u))
(prohibits foreign assistance and assistance under Agricultural Trade
Development and Assistance Act of 1954)
Drugs (international narcotics control).
§ 486, 487, 490, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2291e, 2291f, 2291j) (restricts foreign assistance, narcotics control
assistance)
§ 13, International Development Association Act (Public Law 86-565; 22 USC
284k) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 802, Narcotics Control Trade Act (title VIII of Public Law 93-618; 19 USC
2492) (denies preferential tariff treatment, imposes importation duty,
curtails air traffic between country and United States, reduces U.S. customs
staff)
§ 803, Narcotics Control Trade Act (title VIII of Public Law 93-618; 19 USC
2493) (restricts sugar quota)
Missing in action.
§ 701(b)(4), International Financial Institutions Act (Public Law 95-118; 22
USC 262d(b)(4)) (requires U.S. executive directors to international
financial institutions to consider MIA issue when voting on international
financial institution loans to Vietnam, Laos, Russia, independent states of
former Soviet Union, and Cambodia)
§ 403, Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2433). (authorizes the
President to deny nondiscriminatory trade treatment, trade-related credits
and investment guarantees, or commercial agreements to countries not
cooperating with U.S. efforts to account fully for MIA in Southeast Asia)
Armed conflict (engaging against U.S. Armed Forces).
§ 2(b)(5), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(5)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank credits)
World economy disruption, vital commodities disruption.
§ 502(b)(2), (b)(3), (e)(2), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC
2462) (para. (2) in part, is specifically directed at Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC))
§ 502(b)(5), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (conditions
beneficiary developing country status)
§ 7, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2406)
(restricts exports relating to short supply)

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§ 8, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App. 2407)
(prohibits cooperating with foreign boycotts)
§ 513, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 104-208; 111 Stat. 2408) (prohibits
foreign assistance)
§ 514, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 104-208; 111 Stat. 2408) (requires
the Secretary of the Treasury to advise U.S. Executive Directors of
international financial institutions to oppose loans where funds would be
used for production or extraction of any commodity or mineral for export
where commodity or mineral is in world surplus supply and its production
would cause substantial injury to U.S. producers)
Parking fines.
§ 551, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2421) (withholds
foreign assistance from nations whose agents or representatives in the
United States are cited as parking scofflaws)
Humanitarian assistance disruption.
§ 620I, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2379)
(prohibits foreign assistance)
Expropriation, confiscation, nationalization, mob action, or other seizure
of or threat to property.
§ 620(a), (g), (j), (l), (o), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195;
22 USC 2370) (prohibits foreign assistance)
§ 620(e), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(e))
(suspends foreign assistance)
§ 12, International Development Association Act (Public Law 86-565; 22 USC
284j) (opposes international financial institution support)
§ 502(b)(4), Trade Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-618; 19 USC 2462) (denies
beneficiary developing country status)
§ 212(b)(2), (3), Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (Public Law 98-67;
19 USC 2702(b)(2), (3)) (denies beneficiary country status)
Crime Control.
§ 6(n), Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2405(n)) (restricts exports)
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO); Palestinian Authority.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 552, Foreign Operations, Export Financing and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2422) (prohibits
foreign assistance to the PLO for the West Bank and Gaza unless the

CRS-17
President invokes authority pursuant to § 604(a) of the Middle East Peace
Facilitation Act of 1995)
§ 566, Foreign Operations, Export Financing and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2428) (prohibits
Economic Support funds for the Palestinian Authority)
§ 114(a), State Department Authorization Act, FY1984-1985 (Public Law 98-
164; 22 USC 287e note) (prohibits U.S. funds to United Nations from
being used to support certain Palestinian entities (similar language in
subsequent foreign relations authorization measures)
§ 414, Foreign Relations Authorization Act, FY1990-1991 (Public Law 101-
246; 22 USC 287e note) (prohibits U.S. funds to United Nations if it
accords the PLO status equal to that of its member states)
§ 37, Bretton Woods Agreements Act (Public Law 79-171; 22 USC 286w)
(states that granting of member or observer status to PLO by the
International Monetary Fund would "result in a serious diminution of
United States support")
§ 1003, Anti-Terrorism Act of 1987 (Public Law 100-204; 22 USC 5202)
(prohibits to receive anything of value from, expend funds from, or
establish an office for, the PLO)
Current Law Related to Specific Countries
Afghanistan.
§ 620D, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2374)
(prohibits foreign assistance)
Angola.
§ 2(b)(11), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (Public Law 79-173; 12 USC
635(b)(11)) (prohibits Export-Import Bank credits)
§ 316, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1987 (Public Law
99-661; 10 USC 2304 note) (prohibits Department of Defense contracts)
Azerbaijan.
Assistance for the New Independent States (NIS) of the Former Soviet Union,
title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2397) (subsec.
(n) prohibits foreign assistance to Azerbaijan until the President determines
and certifies that the Government of Azerbaijan is taking demonstrable
steps to cease all blockades against Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh
(excludes funds for democracy building, TDA, or the U.S. and Foreign
Commercial Service))
Bosnia-Hercegovina.
Assistance for Eastern Europe and the Baltic States, title II, Foreign Operations,
Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 ( Public
Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2394) (withholds economic revitalization funds for
Bosnia-Hercegovina until President certifies as to withdrawal of foreign
forces and cessation of cooperation between Iranian and Bosnian
intelligence communities)

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§ 8132, Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 1998 (prohibits use of
DOD funds for deployment of U.S. Armed Forces in Bosnia and
Hercegovina past June 30, 1998, unless certain conditions are met)
Burma (Myanmar).
§ 138, Customs and Trade Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-382) (authorizes
President to impose such economic sanctions as he determines to be
appropriate)
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 570, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1997 (§ 101(c) of title I of Public Law 104-208)
(prohibits most foreign assistance; requires "no" votes in international
financial institutions; authorizes President to restrict visas and impose
investment sanctions, until such time that the President determines and
certifies that Burma has made measurable and substantial progress in
improving human rights and implementing democratic government)
Cambodia.
§ 906, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public
Law 99-83) (prohibits certain aid to Khmer Rouge)
Cambodia, title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2390) (prohibits
most foreign assistance to Government of Cambodia (excluding
humanitarian, demining, or election-related programs or activities))
§ 589, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2438) (requires
the Secretary of the Treasury to instruct U.S. executive directors of
international financial institutions to oppose loans to Government of
Cambodia, except loans supporting basic human needs)
Chile.
§ 726, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1981 (Public
Law 97-113) (prohibits most security and military assistance to Chile until
the President certifies on certain conditions in human rights, terrorism,
extraterritorial assassination)
Congo (former Zaire).
§ 585, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2437) (prohibits
foreign assistance to the central Government of the Democratic Republic
of Congo until President determines and certifies as to its cooperation with

CRS-19
U.N. investigators in accounting for human rights violations in Congo or
adjacent countries)
Cuba.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 620(a), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2370(a))
(prohibits foreign assistance; authorizes total embargo)
§ 902(c), Food Security Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-198; 7 USC 1446 note)
(prohibits sugar import quota to any country found to be importing for
reexport to the United States sugar produced in Cuba)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 ( Public Law 104-208; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§ 1704(b), Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 22 USC
6003(b)) (authorizes the prohibition of foreign assistance, arms export
assistance, and debt forgiveness to any country conducting trade with
Cuba)
§ 1705, Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 22 USC 6004)
(limits terms for donations and exportation of food and medicine to Cuba)
§ 1706, Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 22 USC 6005)
(prohibits licenses for exportation to Cuba; restricts port access to ships
that have docked in Cuba; restricts remittances)
§ 102(h), Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6032) (codifies 31 CFR part 515 (Cuban
Assets Control Regulations) in permanent law)
§ 103, Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6033) (prohibits indirect financing of any
transaction involving confiscated property the claim to which is owned by
a U.S. national)
§ 104, Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6034) (authorizes opposition in international
financial institutions to admission of Cuba; reduces U.S. contribution to any
international financial institution that completes most transactions with
Cuba)
§ 105, Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6035) (requires continued effort to maintain
suspension of Government of Cuba from Organization of American States
participation)

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§ 111(b), Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6041(b)) (withholds assistance from any
country found to be supporting the completion of Cuba's nuclear facility at
Juragua, Cuba)
§ 302, Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6082) (makes liable for civil claims anyone
trafficking in confiscated property, to which a U.S. citizen has made a
claim, in Cuba)
§ 401, Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996
(Public Law 104-114;22 USC 6091) (authorizes the Secretary of State to
deny a visa to any alien who has trafficked in confiscated property in Cuba)
Guatemala.
International Military Education and Training, title III, Foreign Operations,
Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public
Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2400) (restricts International Military Education
and Training funding)
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2403) (prohibits Foreign Military Finance funding)
Haiti.
§ 562, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2427) (prohibits
foreign assistance, excluding humanitarian, electoral, counter-narcotics, or
law enforcement assistance)
§ 621, Department of State Appropriations Act, FY1998 (Public Law 105-119;
111 Stat. 2520) (prohibits State Department funding for visa issuance to
certain Haitians involved in extrajudicial and political killings, or to certain
members of the Haitian High Command during 1991-1994)
Indonesia.
International Military Education and Training, title III, Foreign Operations,
Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public
Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2400) (restricts International Military Education
and Training funding)
§ 571, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2429) (requires
any agreement for sale, transfer, or licensing of lethal equipment or
helicopter for Indonesia entered into by United States to state that the
United States expects that the items will not be used in East Timor)
Iran.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)

CRS-21
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§ Iran Sanctions Act of 1990 (§ 586 through 586J of Public Law 101-513)
(made applicable to Iran pursuant to § 1603, Public Law 102-484; see
discussion under "Iraq")
§ 1604, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50
USC 1701 note) (sanctions individuals for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's
efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers
and types of advanced conventional weapons)
§ 1605, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50
USC 1701 note) (sanctions foreign countries for contributing to Iraq's or
Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing
numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
§§ 5, 6, Iran and Libya Sanctions Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-172; 50 USC
1701 note) (authorizes the President to impose two or more of following
sanctions on person if found to have engaged in investment in Iran: prohibit
Export-Import Bank assistance, deny export licenses, prohibit U.S.
financial institutions from making loans to sanctioned person, further
restrict financial institutions from certain transactions, prohibit procurement
contracts, restrict importation)
Iraq.
§ 586C, 586F, 586G, Iraq Sanctions Act (in title V of the Foreign Operations,
Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1991; Public
Law 101-513) (continues President's imposition of trade embargo; prohibits
arms sales, foreign military financing programs, export licenses for U.S.
Munitions List items, items controlled for national security or foreign policy
reasons, and nuclear equipment, materials, and technology. Requires U.S.
vote against international financial institution funding, prohibited Export-
Import bank funding, Commodity Credit Corporation assistance, and most
U.S. foreign assistance)
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits

CRS-22
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§ 534, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2416) (prohibits
foreign assistance and transactions under the Arms Export Control Act to
any country not in compliance with U.N. sanctions against Iraq)
§ 1604, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50
USC 1701 note) (sanctions individuals for contributing to Iraq's or Iran's
efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing numbers
and types of advanced conventional weapons)
§ 1605, Iran-Iraq Arms Nonproliferation Act of 1992 (Public Law 102-484; 50
USC 1701 note) (sanctions foreign countries for contributing to Iraq's or
Iran's efforts to acquire chemical, biological, nuclear, or destabilizing
numbers and types of advanced conventional weapons)
Liberia.
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2402) (prohibits Foreign Military Financing funding)
Libya.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 504, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public
Law 99-83) (authorizes the President to prohibit importation and
exportation of goods and services from/to Libya)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 104-208; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§§ 5, 6, Iran and Libya Sanctions Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-172; 50 USC
1701 note) (authorizes the President to impose two or more of following
sanctions on person if found to have engaged in investment in Libya:
prohibit Export-Import Bank assistance, deny export licenses, prohibit U.S.
financial institutions from making loans to sanctioned person, further
restrict financial institutions from certain transactions, prohibit procurement
contracts, restrict importation)

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§ 5, Iran and Libya Sanctions Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-172; 50 USC 1701
note) (further requires mandatory sanctions as described above if person is
found to have contributed to Libya's ability to acquire chemical, biological,
or nuclear weapons or destabilizing numbers and types of advanced
conventional weapons, or enhanced Libya' military or paramilitary
capabilities; contributed to Libya's petroleum resource development;
contributed to Libya's ability to maintain its aviation capabilities)
Mauritania.
§ 202, Human Rights, Refugee, and Other Foreign Relations Provisions Act of
1996 (Public Law 104-319; 22 USC 2151 note) (states the President
should prohibit economic and military assistance and arms transfers to
Government of Mauritania for human rights reasons)
Nicaragua.
§ 722, International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985 (Public
Law 99-83) (prohibits foreign assistance and arms sales to paramilitary
organizations and insurgent groups in Nicaragua)
North Korea.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
International Organizations and Programs, title IV, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2405) (prohibits IO & P funding from being made
available for Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO)
programs)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 104-208; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§ 8066, Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-56)
(prohibits DOD appropriations assistance)
Pakistan.
§ 620E(e), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2375(e)) (prohibits military assistance and military sales)

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Panama.
§ 1302, National Defense Authorization Act, Fiscal Year 1989 (Public Law 100-
456; 22 USC 2151 note) (prohibits U.S. funding for Panamanian Defense
Force)
People's Republic of China.
Public Law 99-183 (99 Stat. 1174) (requires certification that China is not
violating sec. 129 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954)
§ 103, International Development and Finance Act of 1989 (Public Law 101-
240; 12 USC 635 note) (prohibits finance of trade with, or credits, loan,
credit guarantees, insurance or reinsurance to China; waived on day it was
signed into law)
§ 902, Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 1990 and 1991 (Public
Law 101-246; 22 USC 2151 note) (continues: suspension Overseas Private
Investment Corporation insurance, reinsurance, financing or guarantees;
suspension new projects by the Trade and Development Agency;
suspension of exports of most defense articles on the U.S. Munitions List
(USML); and nuclear trade and cooperation. Prohibits: export licenses for
crime control and detection equipment; Suspends: U.S. satellite exports
and liberalization of multilateral export controls)
§ 610, Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related
Agencies Appropriations Act, 1990 (Public Law 101-162). (prohibits State
Department appropriations to be used for approving export licenses to
China for launch of U.S.-built satellites; waived on case-by-case basis)
International Organizations and Programs, title IV, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2405) (prohibits U.S. funds payable to U.N. family
planning program (UNFPA) from being applied to programs in China)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
§ 2826, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998 (Public Law
105-85) (prohibits conveyance of Long Beach Naval Station property to
the China Ocean Shipping Company--COSCO)
Russia (see also [Former] Soviet Union/East Bloc).
§ 498A(b), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195;22 USC
2295A(b)) (states ineligibility for foreign assistance to governments of the
independent states)
§ 498A(d), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195;22 USC
2295A(d)) (reduces foreign assistance when Russia is found to be assisting
Cuba with intelligence facilities)
Assistance for the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union, title II,
Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2395) (subsec.
(b): prohibits funds under this paragraph from being made available to
Russia unless that government is making progress in implementing
comprehensive economic reforms, or if that government is found to be
transferring such funds to support expropriation or property seizure.
Subsec. (j) withholds 50 percent of funding under this paragraph until the

CRS-25
President determines and certifies that Russia has terminated arrangements
with Iran to provide that country nuclear technical expertise, training,
technology, or equipment)
§ 577, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2433) (prohibits
foreign assistance to Government of the Russian Federation unless
President determines and certifies that the Government of the Russian
Federation "has implemented no statute, executive order, regulation or
similar government action that would discriminate, or would have as its
principal effect discrimination, against religious groups or religious
communities...")
§ 2(b)(12), Export-Import Bank Act of 1945 (12 U.S.C. 635(b)(12)) (prohibits
Export-Import Bank guarantees, insurance, credits, or other participation
in connection with transactions of the Russian military if the military or
government transfer or deliver an SS-N-22 missile system to China)
§ 1406, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998 (Public Law
105-85) (restricts Cooperative Threat Reduction funds to Russia until
President certifies on implementation of Bilateral Destruction Agreement
and general national security issues)
Serbia and Montenegro.
§ 1511, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (Public Law
103-160; 50 USC 1701 note) (prohibits broad range of relations, freezes
assets, travel, assistance, international financial institution support)
[Former] Soviet Union/East Bloc.
§ 498A(b), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195;22 USC
2295A(b)) (states ineligibility for foreign assistance to governments of the
independent states)
§ 11A, Export Administration Act of 1979 (Public Law 96-72; 50 USC App.
2410a) (prohibits exports)
Assistance for the New Independent States (NIS) of the Former Soviet Union,
title II, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2395) (subsec.
(c) prohibits most foreign assistance to any NIS violating another NIS's
sovereignty (excludes humanitarian and refugee relief assistance. Subsec.
(d) prohibits funding under this paragraph to be used for enhancing military
capacity (excluding demilitarization, demining, or nonproliferation
programs))
Sudan.
Foreign Military Financing Program, title III, Foreign Operations, Export
Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 199 (Public Law
105-118; 111 Stat. 2402) (prohibits Foreign Military Financing funding)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)

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Syria.
§ 307, Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC 2227)
(prohibits use of U.S. foreign assistance paid in as U.S. proportionate share
to international organizations when those organizations run programs in
Burma, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Libya, Iran, Cuba, or with the Palestine
Liberation Organization)
§ 507, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2407) (prohibits
direct foreign assistance)
§ 516, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2410) (prohibits
foreign assistance for proportionate share payments to United Nations as
stated in § 307, Foreign Assistance Act, or for Libya and Iran)
§ 523, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2412) (prohibits
indirect foreign assistance)
Turkey.
§ 620(x), Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (Public Law 87-195; 22 USC
2370(x)) (suspends military assistance and transactions)
§ 565, Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2428) (limits
Economic Support funds)
Ukraine.
Assistance for the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union, title II,
Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 1998 (Public Law 105-118; 111 Stat. 2395) (subsec.
(k) withholds 50 percent of funding made available to Ukraine under this
paragraph until the Secretary of State determines and certifies that Ukraine
has made significant progress toward resolving complaints of U.S.
investors)
Vietnam (Socialist Republic of).
§ 610, State Department Appropriations Act, FY1998 (Public Law 105-119;
111 Stat. 2517) (prohibits State Department funding for diplomatic or
consular post until certain conditions are met)