98-170 GOV
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Speechwriting in Perspective: A Brief Guide to
Effective and Persuasive Communication
February 25, 1998
Thomas H. Neale
Analyst in American National Government
Government Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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Speechwriting in Perspective: A Brief Guide to
Effective and Persuasive Communication
Summary
The frequent delivery of public remarks by Senators and Representatives is an
important element of their roles as community leaders, spokespersons, and freely
elected legislators. Congressional staff are often called on to help prepare draft
remarks for such purposes.
Writing for the spoken word is a special discipline; it requires that congressional
speechwriters’ products be written to be heard, not read. Speeches are better cast in
simple, direct, and often short sentences that can be easily understood by listeners.
Rhetorical devices such repetition, variation, cadence, and balance are available to,
and should be used by, the speechwriter.
It is important for speechwriters to analyze audiences according to factors such
as age; gender; culture; profession and income level; size of audience; political
affiliation, if any; and the occasion for, and purpose of, the speech. Most effective
speeches do not exceed 20 minutes in length.
A wide range of speechwriting resources are available for congressional staff
from the Congressional Research Service and other sources.
After researching their topic, speechwriters should prepare an outline from
which the speech will be developed. They should strive to maintain a clear theme
throughout the speech. Most speeches will have a three-part structure consisting of
an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
The accepted style of contemporary American public address is natural, direct,
low key, casual, and conversational. This puts listeners at ease and promotes a sense
of community between audience and speaker.
Punctuation should reflect the sound structure of the speech, reinforcing the
rhythm and pace of actual speech. Clarity of expression is as important a
consideration in speech grammar as rigid adherence to rules for written language.
Effective delivery can greatly improve a speech. Congressional speechwriters
should make every effort to become familiar with the speaking style of the Member
for whom they are writing, and adjust their drafts accordingly.

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Writing For The Spoken Word: The Distinctive Task of The Speechwriter . . . . 1
Repetition and Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Cadence and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Rhythmic Triads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Alliteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Anaphora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Antithesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sentence Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Rhetorical Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sentence Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Inverted Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Suspension for Climax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Use of Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Audience Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Audience Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Degree of Political Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Occasion and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Persuasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Time and Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Time of Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
How Many Words? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Speech Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Speechwriting Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Policy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Speech Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Building Blocks: Suggested Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Thematic Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Punctuation, Grammar, and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Speech Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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Analysis of Lincoln’s Farewell to His Neighbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
General Observations and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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Speechwriting in Perspective: A Brief Guide to
Effective and Persuasive Communication
Introduction
“Rhetoric,” wrote Aristotle, “is the power of determining in a particular case
what are the available means of persuasion.” This report reviews some effective
means for the rhetoric of persuasive communication in speeches written by
congressional staff for Senators and Representatives. By speeches, this report means
draft statements prepared for oral delivery by Members. Such speeches are often
prepared under the pressure of deadlines that leave minimal time for extensive
revision. Moreover, they must often be drafted in whole or part for Members who
may have little opportunity to edit and amend them. The burdens of public office (as
well as of campaigning) and the insistent demand for speeches of every kind for a
variety of occasions require some degree of reliance on speechwriters, a reliance that
is heightened by the limitations of time and the urgencies of the media.
A speech thus “ghostwritten” should nevertheless reflect the intention and even
the style of the speaker. The best ghostwriters are properly invisible; they
subordinate themselves to the speaker in such a way that the final product is
effectively personalized in the process of actual communication. The only ways to
achieve or even approach this ideal are practice and experience. This report seeks to
provide some guidance for congressional staff on the principles and practice of
speechwriting. The suggestions offered herein, when combined with practice,
attention to audience and occasion, and, most importantly, the Member’s attitudes,
convictions, and style, can help create a speech that can be a “seamless garment”
when delivered by the Member.
This report revises an earlier report by the same title prepared by Charles H.
Whittier, Specialist in Religion and Public Policy, Government Division.
Writing For The Spoken Word:
The Distinctive Task of The Speechwriter
Writing effective speeches requires a constant awareness of the distinction
between the written and the spoken word: the speechwriter must learn to “write
aloud.” While the best speeches read as well as they sound, the novice speechwriter
should give priority to the ear and not the eye. His or her speech must be written to
be heard, not read.
This means that easy intelligibility should be a paramount concern, so that the
listening span is not strained. One of the first rules of the speechwriting profession

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is that a sentence written to be heard should be simple, direct, and short. When the
speechwriter “writes aloud,” George Orwell’s advice to cut out any word that can
possibly be cut is helpful, so long as the resulting effect is clarity, and not verbal
shorthand.
1 Ciceronian oratory on the one hand and Dick-and-Jane simplicity on the
other are extremes to be avoided. The speechwriter thus faces the challenge of
crafting words that convey the speaker’s meaning clearly, but that also draw on the
rich nuance and texture of spoken English.
The average spoken sentence runs from eight to 16 words; anything longer is
considered more difficult for listeners to follow by ear, and according to one expert,
may be too long for the average listener to absorb and analyze quickly.2 By
comparison, written sentences of up to 30 words are easily understood by average
readers. Given these generally accepted limitations, what devices are available t
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the writer to make more complex sentences and speech wording accessible to the
listener? Complex sentences can be clarified by repeating key words and using
simple connections. By numerous rhetorical techniques, the speaker states, restates,
and states again in different ways, the central themes of the speech.
Repetition and Variation
Repetition with variation is a basic speechwriting tool used by many of the
greatest speakers to emphasize key elements while avoiding monotony. Some
examples follow.
! Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream” speech was a striking example of this
technique, using that phrase to introduce a series of his visions for a better
future.
! Lincoln at Gettysburg emphasized the significance of the day’s events by
restating the solemnity of the occasion in not fewer than three variations: “We
cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground, ...”
! Similarly, Winston Churchill’s World War II speeches used repetition with
variation to build a powerful climax: “We shall fight in France and on the seas
and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in
the air. We shall defend our island whatever the cost may be; we shall fight
on the beaches and landing grounds, in fields, in streets and on the hills, ... we
shall never surrender.”
! Franklin D. Roosevelt’s 1937 “One third of a Nation” speech imparted a sense
of urgency by his deliberate repetition of a “here are” construction to describe
conditions in the country, followed again and again with “now”:

1 George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language,” in Shooting an Elephant and Other
Essays (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1950).
2 Edward Bernays, quoted in Mary G. Gotschall, “The Lost Art of Speechmaking,”
Campaigns and Elections, vol. 14, June-July, 1993, p. 48.
3 William E. Wiethoff, Writing the Speech (Greenwood, IN: Alistair Press, 1994), p. 15.

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Here is one-third of a nation ill-nourished, ill-clad, ill-
housed—NOW.
Here are thousands upon thousands of farmers wondering
whether next year’s prices will meet their mortgage
interest—NOW.
Here are thousands upon thousands of men and women laboring
for long hours in factories for inadequate pay—NOW.
Cadence and Balance
Another venerable rhetorical device is the use of cadence and balance in the
spoken word. This is a part of speechwriting where the speaker and the writer need
cooperation to ensure success. The tradition of public speaking in the English
language owes much to the poetic tradition, which was originally an oral tradition.
As one observer noted, “the language of the speech should also be poetic—replete
with alliteration, metaphor, and other figures of speech. Such adornments, far from
being superfluous, enhance meaning and emphasize relationships among ideas.” As
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difficult to define as to achieve, cadence and balance impart a flowing movement and
harmonious effect to any speech. Essentially a matter of ordering groups of words
(and ideas) into rhythmic patterns, cadence and balance can be attained by such
classical rhetorical devices as the ones described below. Do not be put off by the
classic Greek names of some of these rhetorical devices; in practice we use them
naturally in conversation and writing every day.
Rhythmic Triads. The grouping of words into patterns of three can lead to a
memorable effect, provided the device is not overused. Some notable examples from
classic oratory include “Veni, vidi, vici”; “Never ... was so much owed by so many
to so few”; “The kingdom, the power, and the glory ...”; “I have not sought, I do not
seek, I repudiate the support of ...”; “one third of a nation ill-clad, ill-nourished, ill-
housed ....”
Parallelism. The linkage of similar words or ideas in a balanced construction
that repeatedly uses the same grammatical form to convey parallel or coordinated
ideas: “Bigotry has no head and cannot think; no heart and cannot feel;” “Charity
beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things.”
Alliteration. The repetition of initial sounds in a series of words to give
emphasis. For instance, “We need to return to that old-fashioned notion of
competition—where substance, not subsidies, determines the winner,” or, “the
nattering nabobs of negativism ....”
Anaphora. This is the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of
successive clauses or sentences. Churchill’s famous defiance of Hitler, “We shall
fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds ...,” which has been
previously cited, is one of the most famous examples.
4 Judith Humphrey, “Writing Professional Speeches,” Vital Speeches of the Day, vol. 54,
Mar. 15, 1988, p. 343.

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Antithesis. A common form of parallel structure comparing and contrasting
dissimilar elements. For instance, “Give me liberty, or give me death”; “Ask not
what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country”; “To some
generations much is given; from others, much is demanded”; “A great empire and
little minds go ill together”; “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. It
was the age of wisdom, it was the age of folly”; “If Puritanism was not the godfather
to Capitalism, then it was godson.”
Sentence Variation
This technique involves more than alternating longer sentences with short ones.
The writer may employ either periodic sentences, that is, those in which the main
clause comes at the end, or loose sentences, in which the main clause is presented at
or near the beginning, to be followed by other main or subordinate clauses. Sentence
variation also includes the use of such devices as those described below.
Rhetorical Questions. “Is peace a rash system?” “Is life so dear or peace so
sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?” The speaker leads the
audience to the conclusion he hopes they will draw by asking a question that makes
his point, and that he intends to answer himself, either immediately, with a flourish,
or at greater length during his remarks, through patient exposition.

Sentence Fragments. “Dear money. Lower credit. Less enterprise in business
and manufacture. A reduced home demand. Therefore, reduced output to meet it.”
The speaker dramatizes the situation by reducing it to a stark declaration, which he
renders more striking by pausing to let the facts sink in after each sentence fragment.
Inverted Order. “With what dignity and courage they perished in that day.”
This classic rhetorical practice, once more widely used, seeks to embellish the
general flow of words, much like an ornament or a musical flourish. It also helps
give a particular sentence special emphasis by causing it to stand out from others by
its unusual form.
Suspension for Climax. With this device, the speaker comes to a complete
stop in his remarks, using the ensuing moment of silence to concentrate the listeners’
attention on his next phrase. “My obligation as President is historic; it is clear; yes,
it is inescapable.” Even periodic sentences, if used with care, repeating the
“suspended” subject or verb before modifying phrases or clauses can contribute to
the effect: “Thus did he prove to be a leader who—victorious in battle, magnanimous
in victory, skilled in the arts of peace—was able, in the face of his most determined
foes ...”
Use of Conjunctions. Repeating key words and using simple connective
conjunctions (and, for, because, but) can make many complex sentences more easily
intelligible to the ear by breaking them up into “bite size” segments. For instance,
“Be a craftsmen in speech that thou mayest be strong, for the strength of one is the
tongue, and speech is mightier than all fighting.”

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Imagery
No speech will sound fresh and vivid if it is not animated by imaginative
imagery, by metaphor in its many forms: “the hatred of entrenched greed”; “America
will always stand for liberty”; “Democracy is the healthful lifeblood which circulates
through the veins and arteries of society ...”; “Whether in chains or in laurels, liberty
knows nothing but victories.”
Extended metaphors or analogies, comparing similarities in different things,
should be used with care so that the principal subject will not be lost in the image.
Two or more metaphors in a single sentence or thought can be safely ventured only
by the most experienced writers—“To take arms against a sea of troubles”—without
incurring ridicule (as in the famous example attributed to the newspaper Pravda, the
onetime propaganda organ of the Soviet Communist Party: “The fascist octopus has
sung its swan-song”).
Above all, in the spoken word there must be an element of identity and rapport
with the listener, whether the speaker uses a “natural” conversational tone or a more
oratorical style. Effective speechwriting for Congress is not a branch of “creative
writing.” Its “rules” are meant to foster clarity of expression, whatever the occasion
and purpose of any given speech. But mere clarity is not enough for persuasive
rhetoric. Indeed, there are times when clarity, brevity, and the like are not
appropriate. The issues may preclude such treatment, or the occasion may call for
some measure of deliberate ambiguity. The best speechwriter will take into account
the context of the speech and the speaker’s personality, the image that is
projected—that is, the speaker whom the audience sees and hears. The section on
speech analysis in this report attempts a closer look at Lincoln’s great Farewell
Address at Springfield, illustrating many of the principles considered in this report.
Audience Analysis
What Jefferson Bates called “audience analysis” is probably the single most
important factor to be considered in writing every speech: know your listeners, and
you will have a much better chance of connecting with them.5
Demographics
Bates and others list a number of criteria useful in audience analysis, including,
among others: age; gender; culture; education, profession, and income level; size of
the audience; and affiliation. Age is obviously an important factor; high schoo
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students, young parents, and senior citizens have different levels of life experience,
different interests reflecting the challenges they face at their particular stages of life,
and, to some extent, they even speak different languages. Although gender

5 Jefferson Bates, Writing With Precision (Washington: Acropolis Books, 1985), pp. 82-85.
6 Wiethoff, Writing the Speech, p. 22.

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differences in societal roles are less pronounced than a generation ago, some believe
that certain persistent disparities of viewpoint between many men and women on
certain topics persist. With respect to “culture,” William Wiethoff, in Writing the
Speech, states that it “has escaped a standard or preferred definition. Speechwriters,
however, may envision culture as the race, customs, and religion shared by members
of an audience.”7 The factors of education, profession, and income level can be a
pitfall for the unwary speechwriter. Never confuse education with intelligence, or
professional status and worldly success with moral superiority or virtue, or modest
means and educational attainment with the opposite.
The writer must be sensitive to these varying frames of reference found in an
audience. Draft remarks should be familiar, sympathetic, and topical, without being
condescending. They must, as always, be phrased in a way that is natural for the
Member; it is painfully obvious to an audience if a Member is not comfortable in his
role or with his words.
Audience Size
The size of an audience is another important factor in preparing a speech. A
large audience and a formal occasion usually call for greater formality in language
and delivery, lengthier remarks, and greater reliance on some of the classical
rhetorical practices cited in this report. By comparison, many Members will require
only talking points for a town meeting, and will almost certainly speak
extemporaneously in still more intimate gatherings. In the age of community cable
television and satellite hookups, the Member is often asked to address what may
appear to be a very small group of listeners physically present at the broadcast venue;
at the same time, however, many others, perhaps thousands, may be viewing from
other locations, or from their homes. It is the writer’s task to craft remarks that
simultaneously take into consideration the people physically present in the studio or
location, and those who may be watching from home or other locations.
Degree of Political Affiliation
Speechwriters must also condition their words to the degree of political
affiliation, or lack thereof, in the intended audience. A gathering of the party faithful
is usually ready for some “red meat.” An audience consisting of a non-partisan
citizen’s group, such as the League of Women Voters, is almost certainly not. The
writer must also always remember that, while the Member is affiliated with one
political party, and comes from a particular part of the state or district, he or she
represents all the people, and gives due attention and respect to the legitimate views
and aspirations of all constituents.
Occasion and Purpose
Speechmaking at public gatherings has been an integral part of western culture
since the time of the great Greek and Roman orators. It has been reinforced by such
7 Ibid., p. 23.

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historical and contemporary elements as the traditions of raucous debate among
Anglo-Saxon tribes at their althings, discussions of local policy alternatives at New
England town meetings, and the giving of testimony by members of evangelical
churches. In contemporary life, it is an expected, if not always welcome, element in
any secular public ceremony, and many religious services.
Another of the speechwriter’s tasks is to assess the occasion at which the
Member has been asked to speak and tailor the remarks accordingly. The occasion
and the speech should agree with one another, in both tone and content.
For instance, Veterans’ Day and Memorial Day are among the most solemn
public holidays in the calendar. For these two events, the speechwriter should focus
on themes of commemoration, service, and sacrifice. The atmosphere should
appropriately be both somber, and hopeful: “their sacrifice led to a better, more
secure life for those who followed them.” High school and college commencements
are of a different genre altogether. The occasion may demand inspirational remarks,
but as one observer noted, “I’ve heard speakers ... deliver a tedious, solemn policy
address at graduation ceremonies in which the graduates and families just want to hit
the exits and have a good time.”8 Conversely, a formal address to a learned society
will differ dramatically from friendly remarks at a neighborhood picnic, town
meeting, or retirement home. Simply put, the writer should exercise common sense
in preparing remarks appropriate in tone and content to both the audience and the
occasion.
Another useful consideration for congressional staff is to plan the delivery of
substantive remarks on substantive occasions. If the Member is planning to
announce a major policy statement or initiative, it should be delivered in
commensurate surroundings, and on occasions when media coverage will be
adequate. Timing is also a serious factor; speeches delivered at mid-morning, at
lunchtime, or early afternoon at the latest, are far more likely to be covered that same
day by local TV news.
The purpose of a speech and the occasion at which it will be delivered are
closely related. Most frequently, the latter will govern the former. William E.
Wiethoff suggests a “purpose” template for speechwriters in Writing the Speech.9 In
it he establishes three categories of purpose: information, persuasion, and
entertainment.
Information
These speeches seek to convey facts or information to the audience. The
speaker first identifies the information that is about to be presented, seeking to link
the new facts with others the listeners may already be aware of. Next, the speaker
elaborates on the details of the information just conveyed, while avoiding a level of
complexity and detail that would confuse the audience. Finally, the speaker draws

8 Robert A. Rackleff, “The Art of Speechwriting,” Vital Speeches of the Day, vol. 54, Mar.
1, 1988. p. 311.
9 Wiethoff, Writing the Speech, pp. 34-42.

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together the facts and ideas related earlier, ideally recapitulating the main points in
order to fix them in the listener’s memory.
Persuasion
The persuasive speech is a two-edged sword: it can seek to instill in the
listeners either the acceptance of, or at least a more favorable opinion toward, a
particular condition, fact, or concept. This variant is described as advocacy.
Conversely, a speech may also attempt to change an audience’s impressions,
opinions, or most ambitiously, their convictions. Wiethoff calls this dissent, and
asserts that it is more difficult than advocacy, since the speaker faces the burden of
proving to the listeners that what they have heretofore accepted should be modified
or rejected. In both cases, the writer
10
must marshal the arguments that will convince
the audience.
Entertainment
Wiethoff’s third category of speech purpose is entertainment. A great
percentage, perhaps a majority, of Member speeches will fall into this category. The
choice of title for this group may be misleading, however. These are not necessarily
frivolous occasions, and they are not unimportant to the life and people of a town or
village, students at a school, or members of a club. Speeches in this category serve
the vital function of reinforcing the common ties and experiences that bind
communities together and help reinforce the vitality of civic life in America. As
Wiethoff notes:
These speeches are delivered during ceremonies or rituals that are significant in
themselves. They do not need clarification in order to be understood. They do
not need proof of their importance. Instead, on these occasions people share an
expectation of what will happen, and they are dissatisfied if the events do not
take place as expected.11
Entertainment speeches may be solemn in nature, such as a Memorial Day address,
or celebratory, at the opening of a new school, library, or child-care facility. They
remind citizens of their joint identity as members of a community; these events,
seemingly everyday, or even trite, are actually vital expressions of civic life. The
Member’s role as a community leader and spokesperson on these occasions should
not be underestimated; it is a great honor for him or her to deliver remarks at these
community rites, and a congressional speechwriter should devote talent and
originality to them.
Obviously, the three purpose categories cited here are not necessarily mutually
exclusive; in order to convince an audience, a speaker often needs to combine
persuasion with information. Similarly, while some types of remarks are intended
purely for entertainment, such as a celebrity roast, the careful speechwriter will
always seek to entertain audiences in order to capture and retain their attention.
10 Ibid., p. 39.
11 Ibid.

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Time and Length
How long should a Member speak? The answer to this fundamental question
of speechwriting, like so many others, depends on a wide range of factors. Audience
analysis and occasion have been previously noted, but the habits and attitudes of the
speaker must also be taken to consideration.
The natural inclinations of the Member must be examined. Is the Member a
person of few words, or is he or she a good talker? Does the Member stick to the
text, or lay it aside to share anecdotes, personal reminiscences, or even humor, with
the audience? These and other related questions can be answered only through
experience on the part of the congressional speechwriter. Learning the Member’s
style and preferences will result in a better product that communicates more
effectively.
Time of Day
Time of day should be considered by the writer. In the morning, people are
relatively fresh, and are generally better prepared physically to listen attentively. By
late afternoon, or after a luncheon, however, the audience may need to be stimulated,
either by coffee or by lively remarks. Also, lengthy after-dinner remarks should
almost never be inflicted, especially on a paying audience. The potential auditors are
full, tired, and ready to go home. It’s best to give them their wish as quickly as
possible.
How Many Words?
Finally comes the classic question: how many words should the speechwriter
prepare? Once again, the factors of audience, occasion, Member preference, and time
of day should be considered. The question of time, however, must be dealt with at
some point. A number of classic speech authorities suggest that in most cases 20
minutes should be the upward limit. Conventional wisdom often holds that most
listeners tune out, perceptibly or not, after that length of time. Ritual or
12
pro forma
speeches, such as occasional remarks at schools, churches, or public functions where
the Member is a guest, but not the main attraction, benefit from brevity, perhaps
being limited to five to 10 minutes.
The question of pace is also important; is the Member a fast talker? Different
speakers exhibit considerable variety in pace, ranging from 115 to 175 words a
minute. Once again, the speechwriter will factor these personal differences into his
work. As a benchmark, however, an often-cited rule of the thumb is that the average
20-minute speech contains about 2,600 words, or, about 130 per minute. Most word

12 Kenneth Roman and Joel Raphaelson, Writing That Works (New York: Harper and Row,
1981), p. 73.

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processing programs will provide a total document word count as part of their spell
check feature.
Having a fixed time stimulates careful preparation. Both a time limit and notes
or text help guard against logorrhea, or excessive verbiage. Time limits also
encourage the speakers not to be overly comprehensive, saying everything there is to
be said on the speech topic. This is a temptation difficult to resist, but a speech is,
by nature, a precis or digest. Excessive complexity or verbiage are capable of
transforming an effective speech into something ponderous and exhausting.
Jefferson’s sharp judgment of 1824 applies today with equal force: “Amplification
is the vice of modern oratory .... Speeches measured by the hour die with the hour.”
Speech Research
Theme, audience, time, place, occasion and purpose—once these are settled, the
speechwriter’s next concern is to gather ideas, facts, examples, illustrations,
quotations, and humor, in short, whatever is needed to give substance, character, and
interest to the speech. There is no shortcut for researching a speech, although a
number of resources can speed the process.
Speechwriting Resources
Congressional speechwriters often consult the Congressional Research Service
first when preparing a draft statement or address for a Member. CRS offers a range
of speechwriting resources for the use of congressional staff. In print, CRS provides
Info Pack IP 139S, which includes this report, a selection of relevant periodical
articles, and CRS Report 97-26 L, Public Speaking and Speechwriting: Selected
References, by Jean M. Bowers.
The CRS Home Page includes a section of links to resources for the
speechwriter, such as historical speeches, books of quotations, and various writing
guides. It is found at (http://www.loc.gov/crs). Congressional staff should click on
the Congressional “Staff Reference Desk” icon and select “Speechwriting.”
Congressional staff may also wish to examine the wide range of speech-related sites
available on the Internet. These range from commercial speechwriting services that
will write, edit, or critique a speech, to resource guides and course outlines posted by
major universities.
Policy Resources
Providing timely, accurate, and unbiased information and analysis on current
policy questions is the most important function of the Congressional Research
Service. CRS provides a full range of products to assist congressional speechwriters
in learning about most public issues. Among these are CRS Info Packs, CRS Reports
for Congress, and continually updated CRS Issue Briefs.
The texts of all CRS issue briefs and several hundred CRS Reports for Congress
are accessible to congressional staff on the CRS Home Page

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(http://www.loc.gov/crs); congressional staff should click on the “Full Text of CRS
Online Products” icon. In addition, products with six or fewer pages can be delivered
electronically to congressional offices on Capitol Hill by the CRS Fax-on-Demand
line at 7-9943 (Capitol Hill only), or 202-707-9943 for state and district office staff.
Printed copies of all CRS products may also be ordered by voice phone at the
CRS Products line at 7-7132 (Capitol Hill only), or 202-707-7132 for district and
state office staff, or by Fax transmission at 7-6745 (Capitol Hill only), or 202-707-
7132 for state and district office staff. A comprehensive printed list of all CRS
products is provided in the quarterly Guide to CRS Products: A Selected Listing,
which is supplemented by the monthly Update to the Guide to CRS Products.
The CRS Home Page also includes a range of other resources for the
congressional speechwriter, including information on pending legislation, the
legislative and budget processes; Internet resources by topic; basic reference works;
and both the collections of the Library of Congress and the CRS Public Policy
Literature File (PPLT) through SCORPIO.
Congressional staff who wish to discuss any policy-related issue with the
appropriate CRS analyst should call 7-5700 (Capitol Hill only), or 202-707-5700 for
district or state office staff, to place a request with the Inquiry Section.
In addition to these CRS products and services for congressional staff, the La
Follette Congressional Reading Room (LM-212, James Madison Memorial Building,
the Library of Congress), and the Longworth (B-221 Longworth House of
Representatives Office Building), Rayburn (B-335 Rayburn House of Representatives
Office Building), and Senate (SR-B05 Russell Senate Office Building) Reference
Centers provide a full range of in-person assistance, including many standard
reference sources and CRS products. They are staffed full-time by reference
librarians.
Legislative information is also available from commercial publications such as
Congressional Quarterly Weekly Reports, the annual Congressional Quarterly
Almanac, and the same publisher’s eight-volume history of major legislation and
national issues since 1945, Congress and the Nation. A journal of similar content but
with greater emphasis on executive branch activities is National Journal, which also
appears weekly.
Other Resources
Apart from these legislative and policy resources, there are other basic materials
with which every speechwriter should be familiar. These include a good standard
dictionary (spell check is not foolproof, and has a rather limited vocabulary). The
preferable dictionary is prescriptive as well as descriptive, that is, it prescribes or
recommends usage in addition to providing descriptions or definitions. A thesaurus,
such as Roget’s, published in numerous editions since 1852, or J.I. Rodale’s Synonym
Finder, is useful in finding the right word and generally superior to the thesaurus
feature offered with most word processing programs. For quotations, consult the
standard Bartlett's Familiar Quotations in any one of its many editions, or
Respectfully Quoted, a quotation dictionary compiled by the Congressional Research

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Service. Annual almanacs, such as the Information Please Almanac and the World
Almanac, are often essential for quick reference.
Literary and religious sources include the works of Shakespeare in any readable
edition and the English Bible, especially the King James or Authorized Version.
Aside from its obvious spiritual aspects, the King James Bible is important for both
its literary quality and its tremendous influence on spoken and written English.
Access to some standard encyclopedia, such as Americana, or Britannica, is
also helpful for fact checking and general information. Chase’s Calendar of Events
is a useful annual guide to special observances throughout the nation. A wealth of
facts, statistics, and data useful in speech preparation can be found in the annual U.S.
Government publication Statistical Abstract of the United States. For sample
speeches on many topics of contemporary interest, the speechwriter may wish to
consult Vital Speeches of the Day, published twice monthly. It provides examples
of speeches delivered by recognized public figures on topical questions and major
issues and events of the day, and is annually indexed by author and topic.
Daily newspapers are a familiar, if neglected, resource for speeches; a dedicated
speechwriter will read or skim several each day, noting and saving background items
that may prove to be useful later. Both national and hometown papers should be
included. Other useful sources include weekly news magazines and more specialized
journals that cover public policy issues.
Speech Preparation
Building Blocks: Suggested Principles
Certain general principles may be useful to guide the congressional writer in
choice of speech content and style:
! Quotations and humorous anecdotes or remarks are like spices, and should be
used with discrimination, mindful of good taste and effectiveness. Speeches
overloaded with quotations and anecdotes can sink from their own weight.
! Pseudo-quotations should be avoided. Never use a quotation that cannot be
verified in an authoritative source.
! Unless a writer is gifted with lightness of touch, self-deprecating or gentle
humor is usually more effective than satire or ridicule.
! Jokes aimed at people’s personal lives or at religious and ethnic groups are
invariably offensive, regardless of the speaker’s motives. Avoid them.
! Statistics should be used with care and moderation. Like the points in an
outline, they are better alluded to in context than cited in tedious detail. A
speech filled with statistics becomes a statistical abstract, not a speech.

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! When selecting material, the responsible speechwriter will take great care to
quote accurately and give full credit for whatever is borrowed outright.
Plagiarism is often illegal and always unethical. On the other hand, it is
entirely proper to adapt existing materials to one’s own purpose in preparing
a new speech for any occasion. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in response to
accusations that he had plagiarized parts of the Declaration of Independence
from other works, “I did not consider it as any part of my charge to invent new
ideas altogether and to offer no sentiment which had ever been expressed
before.” Straining after originality, which has been defined by an anonymous
wit as “imitation not yet detected,” can ruin the best of speeches.
! Finally, the seasoned speechwriter soon learns to recycle the best parts of
previous efforts, to save time and effort, and also to preserve a particularly
fine turn of phrase.
The Outline
The task of actually writing the speech, once the preliminaries are completed,
will be greatly facilitated in most cases by the use of an outline. The novice
speechwriter may be tempted to dispense with this device, on the grounds that it adds
a time consuming extra step to a process that is often constrained by tight deadlines.
On the other hand, it forces the writer to plan and organize his thoughts, to determine
in advance what he intends to say, and to begin at the beginning. All too frequently
the alternative leads to undisciplined stream-of- consciousness rhetorical flights that
lead to a dead end or outright disaster. The outline thus remains an important first
step; it is a useful tool for analyzing information that has been gathered and ordering
it into some kind of logical or reasonable sequence. The outline serves as a skeleton,
a framework to carry the flesh and blood of the fully developed speech. At the same
time, this skeleton should eventually be invisible, clothed in delivery with ideas and
emotions, and as simple as possible; beware of explicitly enumerating too many
points or topics. Outlines may be written in topics, or key sentences, or in complete
thoughts, so long as there is an orderly sequence.
The frugal writer will retain speech outlines, since they can easily be reworked
for future efforts. These can be placed in folders in a word processing program, or
written out into a looseleaf notebook binder or on index cards. From any of these
media, the outlines can be quickly cut, rearranged, or added to as future occasions
may require. President Ronald Reagan, for example, was legendary for his expert use
and reuse of note cards that included facts and themes he hoped to emphasize in
various speeches.
Thematic Clarity
Throughout the speech, the writer ought to be constantly asking: “What is it I
am trying to say?” and, after it is written: “Have I, in fact, said it clearly, succinctly,
and well?” Every speech seeks in some way to move an audience, to win support,
to motivate, to convince, perhaps to inspire or, simply to entertain. Adhere to the
central theme or idea while addressing it in different ways, much in the manner that
good sentences are constructed for a paragraph.

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The arrangement of ideas and themes should follow a logical progression. Each
fact establishes a certain point, which leads to the speaker’s next point, and so forth,
ultimately climaxing with the thematic conclusion. While it is more dramatic to gain
an audience’s attention by opening a speech with a grand conclusion, be sure that the
initial dramatic assertion is followed up by the essential process of weaving the
argument the Member seeks to make.
Do not try to say too much, particularly when the speech is intended as the
vehicle for a major announcement or initiative. The most memorable presidential
inaugural addresses have been those that set a single theme, or coherent group of
related themes. Stick to no
13
more than three major points, rather than attempting to
say a little something about everything. Anything more risks running afoul of
Churchill’s famous comment concerning a bland dessert: “This pudding has no
theme.”
Structure
Nearly every speech will have a basic three-part structure of introduction, body,
and conclusion. An arresting introduction should lead into an emphatic statement of
the main theme or themes. The argument that follows seeks to elaborate and develop
the theme convincingly and effectively—that is, without too much detail. The central
theme is restated in the closing peroration. One helpful approach for overcoming the
feeling of word fright (what can I say and how?) is to write the speech in reverse:
begin with the conclusion, which should summarize the central message, while
abridging and restating whatever goes before. If the introduction sets the tone and
establishes initial appeal or rapport, the closing communicates the final effect and is
more likely to be remembered. Working backward is one way of imparting unity,
coherence, and emphasis to the speech as a whole.
There are many techniques available for the actual writing of a speech. Almost
all speeches delivered by, or on behalf of, Members of Congress, even those for
ceremonial or pro forma occasions, will have a certain political character because of
the Member’s representative function, and also because of the way in which his or
her office is perceived. In the rhetorical context, political means persuasive,
including the expression of personal interest and concern, assuring and reassuring,
conveying the Member’s identity with each audience, and so creating a community
of interest and trust. Three kinds of persuasive techniques are usually distinguished:
1) the appeal to reasonableness; 2) the appeal to emotion; and 3) the ethical appeal
(that is, to the character of the audience). All three may be used in any given speech.
One popular option for developing a speech is the “attention-problem-solution”
method, especially for longer speeches of a non-partisan character. Useful for many
different occasions, this method begins by stimulating the interest of the audience,
usually with attention-grabbing examples of a problem that needs to be recognized
13 For a selection of presidential inaugural addresses, see: Jefferson’s first, 1801; Lincoln’s
second, 1865; Roosevelt’s first, 1933; Kennedy, 1961; and Reagan’s first, 1981. These and
all others are available online at the CRS Home Page at (http://www.loc./ gov/crs). Click on
the “Congressional Staff Reference Desk” icon and select “Speech Writing.”

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and confronted. The speaker then moves to define the “problem” situation, and
concludes with the proposed “best” solution, presented so as to win listener support.
Another option, the “this-or-nothing” method, advocates a policy mainly by
presenting and refuting proposed alternatives as inadequate or worse. It lends itself
well to partisan occasions or to stirring those already convinced. In every case the
speaker seeks to reinforce and strengthen his principal ideas as they are unfolded in
the speech. Prior audience analysis and subject preparation will often help the speech
“write itself.”
No speaker should ever apologize for his or her presence, or for the content of
the speech. If it truly deserves apologies, it is better left unsaid. Further, a prudent
speaker, rightly wary of the impulse to speak “off-the-cuff,” will make certain that
“extemporaneous” or “impromptu” remarks are not unprepared. For most speakers
it is also better not to memorize a speech (unless one has a gift for it), since memory
is fallible and elusive at best.
Style
The congressional speechwriter should not shrink from commonly accepted
contemporary usage: the all-day speeches and obscure classical allusions of Daniel
Webster and Henry Clay make wonderful reading, but they are history. The
development of public address systems, radio, and, finally, the “cool” medium of
television, combined with other social changes to turn down the volume, both in
decibels and emotions, of public speaking in the United States, for better or worse
eliminating its more histrionic qualities.
The accepted style of contemporary oratory is generally low key, casual without
being offensively familiar, and delivered directly to the audience in a conversational
tone and volume. It puts the audience at ease and helps promote psychological
bonding between listeners and speaker. The speaker is perceived as a neighbor or
friend, as well as an elected official. This is, of course, what every Senator and
Representative strives to be. Perhaps the first, and certainly one of the most
effective, practitioners of this art was President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, in his
radio “fireside chats.” His calm, reassuring voice and homey language
revolutionized the bond of communication between the American people and their
Presidents. It could be said that FDR spoke “with,” rather than “to,” the people, a
standard to which Members can honestly aspire today. Once again, certain
exceptions are allowed, but these are generally reserved largely to the President, or
for only the most formal occasions.
Use natural words and phrases in a speech; let the sentences flow
conversationally. It is helpful for some writers, time permitting, to prepare a first
draft in longhand, shaping the sentences slowly, speaking aloud the phrases they
intend to use. The first person is perfectly acceptable in modern public discourse,
and when combined with other personal pronouns, it can help connect listener to
speaker and create a sense of community within the audience. Writers should
generally use simple, declarative sentences when making important statements of
fact, assertion, or opinion. On the other hand, the exclusive use of the active voice
can impart a choppy, juvenile cadence to even a content-rich speech. While the first

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person singular and the passive voice are sometimes deprecated, it is their excessive
use that should be avoided. The passive is sometimes the more desirable form, the
fear of saying “I” can lead to verbal distortions, and even a familiar cliche can
sometimes be unusually apt.
Just as there are points to emphasize in every speech, serving as clear transitions
or aural signposts for paragraphs (“secondly,” “nevertheless,” “finally,”
“accordingly,” “as a result,” “in spite of,” “as I have said,” etc.), so there are things
to avoid, and they are more numerous. While they are discussed in full in many
reference works, they include:
! jargon and trendy neologisms: “interface,” “impact” used as a verb,
“parameters,” et al.;
! redundancy resulting from excess verbiage, not deliberate restatement;
! mannerisms that may distract the listener, and trite phrases or cliches, with the
exception previously mentioned, monotony of style or pace, and, in general,
language inappropriate to the audience and occasion.
Punctuation, Grammar, and Delivery
Punctuation is crucial to an effective speech; it helps to clarify the delivery of
the spoken word. Good punctuation in English, apart from a few basic elements, is
less a matter of inflexible rules than of purpose and style, particularly where speeches
are concerned. Historically there have been two broad traditions of punctuation:
syntactical—that is, guided by syntax or grammatical construction; and
elocutionary—deriving from the rhythm and pace of actual speech. One writer has
further distinguished three methods of punctuating:
! by structure or logic to indicate the sense of what is being said;
! by the rhythm of word order and intended meaning—a subtle use best avoided
by novice speech writers;
! and by respiration—that is, by the physical ease of natural speech, which
assumes that what is read is really spoken.14
This last method, essentially the same as the elocutionary style, is the most widely
used and certainly the most appropriate for speeches. In short, punctuate according
to the ear and not the eye.
Commas and dashes are useful to the speaker and listeners alike as guideposts
to what lies ahead in a speech. They also provide pauses where the speaker can let
the import of the previous sentence sink in, or simply catch his or her breath. Opinion
is divided on colons and semicolons; they can be considered as serving the same
functions as commas and dashes, but they are sometimes criticized as leading to long
14 Herbert Read, English Prose Style (New York: Pantheon, 1980), pp. 33-51.

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compound sentences that are difficult for audiences to process. One solution is to
break compound sentences down into shorter declarative ones.
Correct grammar and syntax in the context of speechwriting and delivery mean
using a level of English usage that is appropriate to the occasion. While it is highly
desirable, the formal grammar of the written language is not an end in itself; it exists
to further clarity of expression. Far more important than the grammarian’s rules is
the communication of personality by which a speech, as opposed to a lecture, is
clothed with emotion and enthusiasm, so that the speaker is perceived to be sincere
and trustworthy, neither “talking over people’s heads” nor “talking down” to them.
While this may belong more to the presentation or delivery, the writer should strive
for it in speech preparation as well.
Speech Presentation
Effective delivery can transform a weak speech and make it sound very good.
Poor delivery can ruin the best-prepared speeches, and sometimes does. Although
delivery is not the concern of the speechwriter as such, it must be always in mind as
a speech is actually written. The speaker’s pace, his or her style, mannerisms,
tendencies (such as departing from a text), peculiarities, or special difficulties (words
to avoid)—these are elements with which the writer should be well acquainted before
preparing any speech. Knowing how a Member speaks is essential in preparing a
draft that is both useful and realistic.
Ideally, a speech draft ought to be reviewed three times—by the writer, by the
prospective speaker, and by a disinterested third party. Of these three, priority should
ordinarily be given to the speaker. The revised product is likely to be more effective.
However, with speeches, as with food, too many cooks are undesirable. Moreover,
time seldom permits this much critical evaluation and rewriting. It may even be
easier to provide for some appraisal of the speech’s impact and audience reaction
after delivery. For example, it is said that Senator Robert F. Kennedy’s speech
writers would follow his delivery of a speech word by word, noting those phrases or
ideas that were well received, or others that created problems.
An effective political speech is defined not by rules of rhetoric, but by the
character of response it evokes. The speaker, then, is always concerned to measure
that response and to elicit “positive feedback.” This means a network of contacts that
can report on the opinions and reactions of the audience, and evaluate the interest
generated and evident a week or more after the event. It requires an awareness of
media coverage and subsequent treatment from constituents, the sponsoring
organization, and others. In short, it means adding a political relevance to the
familiar phrase, “keeping in touch.”
Although there are substantial distinctions between legislative and non-
legislative speeches, the basic principles of preparation and presentation are identical
for both. Good writing is nurtured by wide reading, which in turn fosters a sense of
style, enriched vocabulary, accuracy in grammar, and a feeling for English syntax.
The best speechwriters will, through regular daily reading, bring an ever more

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abundant background to their work. Everything is grist for the speechwriter’s mill.
Moreover, nothing is surer in speechwriting than that “practice makes perfect.” The
more one writes, the easier the task becomes, and the smoother and more
conversational the flow of the Member’s remarks.
As with so many aspects of speechwriting and delivery, the physical form of a
speech is a matter of personal preference. Some speakers prefer to work from a
completely polished text, one that may include carefully tailored “spontaneous”
anecdotes and jokes at appropriate places, and may even incorporate hints on speech
delivery or effective body language in the text. Others prefer to speak from notes
derived from such a text, proceed from a series of “talking points,” or simply
extemporize. Whichever method is used, preparatory notes or an outline are
recommended, with the cautionary warning that dependence on a manuscript can
deaden the delivery, just as the excessive use of notes or cards can stimulate
verbosity.
Analysis of Lincoln’s Farewell to His Neighbors
President-elect Lincoln’s farewell speech at Springfield, Illinois on February 11,
1861 is probably the shortest great speech ever delivered from the back of a train.
Its railway car setting recalls to mind the now-vanished connection between political
events and the railroad, including the whistle-stop campaigns of most presidential
candidates from William Jennings Bryan to Dwight Eisenhower. What Jacques
Barzun called Lincoln’s “workaday style [would become] the American style par
excellence,” undermining the monopoly exercised by purveyors of “literary plush.”15
The Springfield speech illustrates with extraordinary brevity—it is only a 15 line
paragraph—the Lincolnian qualities of precision, vernacular ease, rhythmic
virtuosity, and elegance.
The sense of right order and emphasis throughout culminates in the closing
sentence— “one of the greatest cadences in English speech.” The effect is achieved
16
by the simple yet artful devices of parallelism, the balancing of similar and
antithetical words phrases, and ideas, evoking rich Biblical overtones among his
hearers. Lincoln’s style is rooted in the “speaking intonations” and “humanly simple
vernacular” of everyday speech, heightened by form and rhythm, the distinctively
American tradition seen at its best in such writers as Emerson and Frost. Although
17
some hold that today there is no place for rhetorical eloquence, arguing that
“bluntness and clarity” and simplistic thoughts are the norm, others assert that the
18
1 5 Jacques Barzun, On Writing, Editing, and Publishing (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press,
1972), pp. 57, 73.
16 Ibid., p. 73
17 Richard Poirier, Robert Frost (New York: Oxford U. Press, 1977), p. 13.
1 8 Edward N. Costikyan, How to Win Votes: The Politics of 1980 (New York: Harcourt,
Brace, Jovanovich, 1980), pp. 120-122.

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craft of speechmaking, the impact of skilled political rhetoric is as significant as ever
in our history. Lincoln’s mastery of that craft remains a formidable example.
19
My Friends: No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness
at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything.
Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an old
man. Here my children have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not
knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task before me greater than
that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being
who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I cannot fail.
Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be everywhere
for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care
commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an
affectionate farewell.20
General Observations and Summary
The rise and, indeed, the virtual triumph in American political speaking of “the
popular conversational idiom,” with its emphasis on simplicity, brevity, and
terseness, has tended to encourage “simplistic language together with slogans or
catch words ...,” influenced perhaps by the techniques of mass media advertising and
particularly television. “Repetition and retention of a few simple ideas are stressed
21
more than a complex concept.” In consequence, some have noted a growing trend
22
toward a numbing mediocrity: “Since the 1920s more political speakers have
addressed larger audiences on a wider range of topics than at any time in history. Yet
so marked is the decline in the quality of style that the majority of speeches are
pedestrian, prosaic, and impotent.” This last may be an excessively pessimisti
23
c
evaluation of the state of contemporary political speech. Few, however, would
advocate a return to the florid style of public speaking that prevailed as recently as
the 1920s.
The remedy, in part, may be the cultivation of style. “Time should be devoted,”
writes L. Patrick Devlin, “to using impressive language,” which he defines as “the
most vivid, clear, concise, and meaningful style.”24 It will be most effective if it
bears the personal stamp of the speaker. “The process of persuasion is ... more a
19 Jeff Greenfield, Playing to Win (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980), pp. 109-130.

20 Abraham Lincoln, “Farewell Address at Springfield, Illinois,”in The Collected Works of
Abraham Lincoln, vol. IV, Roy P. Basler, ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Press, 1953),
pp. 190,191.
21 James L. Golden, “Political Speaking Since the 1920s,” in Contemporary American
Speeches, Will A. Linkugel, R.R. Allen, and Richard L. Johannesen, eds., 2nd ed.
(Belmont, CA:Wadsworth, 1969), p. 170.
22 L. Patrick Devlin, Contemporary Political Speaking (Belmont, CA:Wadsworth), p. 14.
23 Golden, Contemporary American Speeches, p. 178.
24 Devlin, Contemporary Political Speaking, p. 14.

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matter of communicating values than logical information.”25 In essence, good
speechwriting requires that the speaker assume a role; to some extent, he or she must
be able to impart confidence and to sense the character of an audience. We need not
agree with Talleyrand’s cynical observation that “speech was given to man to
disguise his thoughts” to recognize that effective persuasion calls for the ability to
win the hearts and minds of listeners. To seem natural is not easy; as George
Fluharty and Harold Ross wrote in Public Speaking:
The speaker is estimating his audience and his audience is estimating him. His
ethics, his integrity, understanding, and humanity are strong forces for good and
also strong components of his “ethos” or personal effect upon not only his
present but also his future audiences. The speaker should therefore make sure
that the actual situation permits him to use a given persuasive device.26
Once again, the words of Abraham Lincoln, himself no mean practitioner of the
public speaker’s art, may serve to summarize the speechwriter’s ultimate goal:
When the conduct of men is designed to be influenced, persuasion, kind,
unassuming persuasion, should ever be adopted. It is an old and true maxim that
“a drop of honey catches more flies than a gallon of gall.” So with men. If you
would win a man to your cause, first convince him that you are his sincere friend.
Therein is a drop of honey that catches his heart, which, say what he will, is the
great high-road to his reason, and which, when once gained, you will find but
little trouble convincing his judgment of the justice of your cause, if indeed that
cause really is a good one.27
25 James H. McBath and Walter R. Fisher, “Persuasion in Presidential Campaign
Communication,” Quarterly Journal of Speech, vol. 55, Feb. 1969, p. 18.

26 George W. Fluharty and Harold R. Ross, Public Speaking (New York: Barnes and Noble,
1981), p. 276.

27 Address before the Washingtonian Temperance Society of Springfield, Illinois, February
22, 1842. Quoted in Caroline Thomas Harnsberger, The Lincoln Treasury (Chicago: Wilcox
and Follett, 1950), p. 43.

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