97-793 GOV
August 19, 1997
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Congressional Campaign Spending: 1976-1996
Joseph E. Cantor
Specialist in American National Government
Government Division
Summary
House and Senate candidates spent a record $765.3 million in 1996, up from $115.5
million in 1976. Average House expenditures rose from $73,000 to $493,000, while
average Senate campaign costs went from $595,000 to $3.3 million. Among winners,
the best measure of the cost of election to Congress, the 1996 House average was
$680,000 and for the Senate, $3.8 million. Even controlled for inflation, spending levels
in all categories more than doubled from 1976-1996. This report presents data on costs
of congressional campaigns, in both aggregate and (mean) average terms.
The data in this report reflect spending by congressional candidates from funds
donated by individuals, political action committees (PACs), parties, and candidates. Thus,
it includes expenditures under candidate control and does not reflect spending on their
behalf, with or without their cooperation, by parties, PACs, and other groups. This
outside spending has become an increasingly important factor in U.S. elections, and much
of it goes undisclosed, making a true measure of election spending more difficult.
However, as official data, reported to and aggregated by the Federal Election Commission
(FEC), these statistics represent a consistent measure of the costs of running for Congress
since the FEC was established to administer disclosure laws enacted in the 1970s.
Aggregate Campaign Spending
This section presents total spending levels among House and Senate candidates in
elections from 1976 to 1996. Data are shown both in current and constant 1996 dollars
(based on the Consumer Price Index, or CPI), in order to control for inflation. Table 1
contains data on aggregate spending by all House and Senate candidates in primary and
general elections (including runoffs, where applicable) for each two-year election
cycle—the election year and the one preceding it. It reports that candidates for Congress
spent $765.3 million in 1996, up from $115.5 million in 1976. This 560% increase,
however, shrinks to 140% in constant dollars. The $477.8 million spent by House
candidates in 1996 constituted 62% of the congressional total, while the $287.5 million
spent by Senate candidates constituted 38%, the same proportions as in 1976.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

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CRS-2
Table 1. Total House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
All Candidates*
House
Senate
Total
Current $ Constant $
Current $ Constant $
Current $
Constant $
1976
$71.5
$197.2
$44.0
$121.3
$115.5
$318.5
1978
$109.7
$263.9
$85.2
$205.0
$194.8
$468.8
1980
$136.0
$259.0
$102.9
$196.0
$239.0
$455.0
1982
$204.0
$331.7
$138.4
$225.1
$342.4
$556.7
1984
$203.6
$307.4
$170.5
$257.5
$374.1
$564.9
1986
$239.3
$342.6
$211.7
$303.0
$450.9
$645.6
1988
$257.6
$341.6
$201.4
$267.1
$459.0
$608.7
1990
$265.8
$319.1
$180.4
$216.6
$446.3
$535.7
1992
$407.6
$455.8
$272.1
$304.3
$679.7
$760.1
1994
$406.3
$430.2
$318.8
$337.6
$725.2
$767.7
1996
$477.8
$477.8
$287.5
$287.5
$765.3
$765.3
* All dollars in millions, rounded to nearest $100,000; constant 1996 dollars are based on the CPI (Table
B-58. Economic Report of the President, Feb. 1997). Source: See Table 6.
Table 2 provides data similar to Table 1 but only for general election candidates;
primary losers are excluded. As such, Table 2 better reflects spending in the main
arena—the general election. Ideally, one could separate spending in primaries by general
election candidates, to gauge the true spending level in the general election. But reporting
procedures make it impossible to do so, in part because of no clear delineation between
spending directed at primary versus general election voters. Also, expenditures before a
little-contested primary may be aimed at influencing the general election; those afterwards
may be payments of primary debts. These data, although not cited as often as those in
Table 1, are used in calculating other statistics, such as the average costs in Tables 3-6.
Table 2. Total House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
General Election Candidates*
House
Senate
Total
Current $ Constant $
Current $ Constant $
Current $ Constant $
1976
$60.9
$168.0
$38.1
$105.1
$99.0
$273.0
1978
$88.0
$211.7
$65.5
$157.7
$153.5
$369.4
1980
$116.9
$222.6
$75.2
$143.2
$192.1
$365.9
1982
$174.9
$284.4
$113.2
$184.0
$288.1
$468.4
1984
$177.6
$268.2
$143.7
$216.9
$321.3
$485.1
1986
$210.3
$301.1
$189.7
$271.6
$400.1
$572.7
1988
$223.1
$295.9
$185.2
$245.6
$408.3
$541.5
1990
$231.3
$277.7
$172.4
$207.0
$403.7
$484.6
1992
$332.7
$372.1
$195.9
$219.1
$528.6
$591.1
1994
$343.8
$364.0
$272.5
$288.5
$615.4
$652.5
1996
$424.8
$424.8
$226.0
$226.0
$650.8
$650.8
* Primary losers excluded; all dollars in millions, rounded to nearest $100,000; constant 1996 dollars are
based on the CPI (Table B-58. Economic Report of the President, Feb. 1997). Source: See Table 6.

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CRS-3
Average Campaign Spending
Tables 3-6 provide data on average expenditures by major party candidates who were
on the general election ballot in the past 20 years, broken down into various categories.
While they closely correspond with the data in Table 2, these tables differ in their exclusion
of non-major party candidates (whose spending comprised less than 1% of the totals in
Table 2). The average expenditure data are the arithmetic mean among all spendin
1
g
figures, derived by dividing the total expenditures by the number of candidates in a set.
(As such, they are subject to being skewed by a few extraordinarily large or small spending
figures, a potentially more serious drawback in examining smaller versus larger data sets,
i.e., Senate rather than House data.)
Table 3 provides average spending figures for all candidates in House and Senate
general elections since 1976, in current and constant 1996 dollars. Average spending by
House candidates rose from $73,000 in 1976 to $493,000 in 1996, a 575% increase.
Adjusted for inflation, the average rose by 143% and actually declined three out of 10
times. The $595,000 average by Senate candidates in 1976 increased by 459% in 1996,
to $3.3 million. The increase amounted to 102% in constant dollars, a lesser rate of
increase than in the House; the average in Senate races declined in five out of 10 times.

Table 3. Average House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
All Candidates*
House
Senate
Current $
Constant $
Current $
Constant $
1976
$73,000
$203,000
$595,000
$1,642,000
1978
$108,000
$260,000
$929,000
$2,237,000
1980
$140,000
$267,000
$1,092,000
$2,081,000
1982
$211,000
$343,000
$1,710,000
$2,782,000
1984
$218,000
$329,000
$2,201,000
$3,326,000
1986
$262,000
$375,000
$2,697,000
$3,863,000
1988
$279,000
$370,000
$2,803,000
$3,720,000
1990
$289,000
$347,000
$2,610,000
$3,135,000
1992
$391,000
$438,000
$2,705,000
$3,027,000
1994
$414,000
$439,000
$3,867,000
$4,097,000
1996
$493,000
$493,000
$3,325,000
$3,325,000
* For major party general election candidates; all dollars rounded to nearest $1000; constant 1996 dollars
are based on the CPI (Table B-58. Economic Report of the President, Feb. 1997). Source: See Table 6.
1 While these tables are confined to spending by major party candidates only, as more
accurate reflections of the true costs of seeking a House or Senate seat, a different methodology
would yield different results; hence some published data conflict with these. For example, some
have restricted their data bases to major party candidates who had major party opponents; others
have divided total expenditures by the number of major party candidates on the ballot, regardless
of whether they met the FEC's reporting threshold (the raising or spending of at least $5,000). The
primary value of any such tables is the trends revealed over time, not any specific figure therein;
the methodology used becomes less important in that context.

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CRS-4
Table 4 lists average expenditure levels of winning House and Senate candidates, in
current and constant 1996 dollars. Data for winning candidates only may provide the best
gauge of the level of funding needed for congressional races, i.e., what it costs to win a
House or Senate seat. On the House side, the average winner spent $680,000 in 1996, a
682% rise from the $87,000 in 1976, a higher rate of increase than among all candidates
(in Table 3). Average spending for Senate winners rose from $609,000 to $3.8 million
during this period, also a larger, steadier rate of increase than among all candidates, but
even here the average constant dollar figure declined in five out of 10 times.
Table 4. Average House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
Winning Candidates*
House
Senate
Current $
Constant $
Current $
Constant $
1976
$87,000
$241,000
$609,000
$1,680,000
1978
$127,000
$306,000
$1,209,000
$2,911,000
1980
$178,000
$339,000
$1,179,000
$2,246,000
1982
$263,000
$428,000
$2,066,000
$3,361,000
1984
$291,000
$440,000
$2,955,000
$4,465,000
1986
$356,000
$510,000
$3,065,000
$4,391,000
1988
$392,000
$520,000
$3,747,000
$4,973,000
1990
$410,000
$493,000
$3,297,000
$3,960,000
1992
$554,000
$620,000
$3,535,000
$3,956,000
1994
$529,000
$560,000
$4,307,000
$4,563,000
1996
$680,000
$680,000
$3,775,000
$3,775,000
* For major party general election candidates; all dollars rounded to nearest $1000; constant 1996
dollars are based on the CPI (Table B-58. Economic Report of the President, Feb. 1997).
Source: See Table 6.
Table 5 provides average spending of all House and Senate candidates, according to
their party affiliation. House Democrats spent an average of $457,000 in 1996, an increase
of 509% over the $75,000 in 1976. The average for House Republicans rose by an even
larger 635% during this period, from $72,000 to $529,000. The trends in the relative
spending levels of the two parties’ candidates are notable. There was near parity in the
first four elections, with Democrats slightly ahead in 1976 and 1978 and Republicans in
the lead in 1980 and 1982. Beginning in 1984, however, the Democrats’ average
increased steadily and significantly over the Republicans’, through 1992. The gap
decreased—to a still substantial $93,000 Democratic lead, in 1994, the year Republicans
won a majority in the House for the first time in 40 years. The Republican averages
climbed greatly from 1990 to 1996, when the Republican average exceeded the
Democratic average by $72,000, the first Republican lead since 1982.
It is far more difficult to discern any pattern in the average data for Senate candidates.
The average Democratic candidate spent $3.2 million in 1996, up 462% from the
$570,000 in 1976. The average Republican spent $3.5 million in 1996, up 460% from the
$617,000 in 1976. The Democratic average was higher in four years, including three in
which they were in the majority in the Senate. The Republican average was higher in
seven years, in three of which Republicans were in the majority. The largest gaps—

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CRS-5
Republican leads of over $1 million—were in 1986, when the GOP lost its Senate
majority, and in 1994, when they regained it.
Table 5. Average House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
By Party*
House
Senate
Democrat
Republican
Democrat
Republican
1976
$75,000
$72,000
$570,000
$617,000
1978
$109,000
$107,000
$730,000
$1,151,000
1980
$134,000
$146,000
$1,171,000
$1,011,000
1982
$203,000
$220,000
$1,811,000
$1,609,000
1984
$221,000
$215,000
$2,035,000
$2,372,000
1986
$268,000
$256,000
$2,194,000
$3,199,000
1988
$292,000
$265,000
$2,944,000
$2,667,000
1990
$322,000
$255,000
$2,533,000
$2,688,000
1992
$442,000
$340,000
$2,736,000
$2,674,000
1994
$461,000
$368,000
$3,324,000
$4,410,000
1996
$457,000
$529,000
$3,202,000
$3,449,000
* For major party general election candidates; all dollars rounded to nearest $1000. Source: See Table
6.
Table 6 provides average expenditures for the respective chambers, according to their
election status — whether an incumbent, a challenger, or an open seat contender. In all
but two of the House elections, the highest average expenditures were among open seat
contenders, typically the most competitive races. The $653,000 average for open seat
candidates in 1996 rose by more than 400% over the $125,000 in 1976. The rate of
increase was comparable among challengers during this period, as the average rose from
$51,000 to $262,000. The average for incumbents rose by the greatest degree—746%,
from $79,000 to $668,000. Most notable is the incumbent-to-challenger ratio of spending:
from a roughly 1.5 to 1 ratio in 1976, the gap widened steadily, reaching 3.8 to 1 in 1992.
The gap dropped in both succeeding elections, to 2.5 to 1 in 1996.
In contrast to House elections, it was the incumbents who generally have spent the
most on average in Senate races (ranking highest in eight elections, with open seat
candidates averaging the most in the other three). The $4.2 million average for
incumbents in 1996 compares with $650,000 in 1976; challenger averages rose from
$433,000 to $2.6 million; and open seat candidates averaged $757,000 in 1976 and $3.3
million in 1996. While it is generally harder to generalize from the smaller Senate data
sets, it is notable that the incumbent-to-challenger ratio has been decidedly closer than in
House races, with Senate incumbents typically outspending their challengers by between
1.5 and 2 to 1.

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CRS-6
Table 6. Average House and Senate Campaign Expenditures, 1976-1996:
by Candidate Status*
Incumbent
Challenger
Open Seat
House
1976
$79,000
$51,000
$125,000
1978
$111,000
$75,000
$199,000
1980
$164,000
$98,000
$203,000
1982
$261,000
$128,000
$282,000
1984
$278,000
$125,000
$377,000
1986
$337,000
$126,000
$431,000
1988
$381,000
$116,000
$521,000
1990
$403,000
$111,000
$504,000
1992
$586,000
$154,000
$428,000
1994
$549,000
$211,000
$579,000
1996
$668,000
$262,000
$653,000
Senate
1976
$650,000
$433,000
$757,000
1978
$1,342,000
$705,000
$792,000
1980
$1,302,000
$925,000
$1,035,000
1982
$1,763,000
$1,171,000
$4,142,000
1984
$2,485,000
$1,114,000
$4,976,000
1986
$3,370,000
$1,832,000
$3,143,000
1988
$3,748,000
$1,820,000
$2,886,000
1990
$3,545,000
$1,758,000
$1,600,000
1992
$3,713,000
$1,817,000
$2,725,000
1994
$4,427,000
$3,906,000
$3,004,000
1996
$4,235,000
$2,554,000
$3,308,000
* For major party general election candidates; all dollars rounded to nearest $1000.
Source: U.S. Federal Election Commission. FEC Disclosure Series No. 6: 1976 Senatorial Campaigns,
Receipts and Expenditures and No. 9: 1976 House of Representatives Campaigns, Receipts and
Expenditures. April 1977 and September 1977; FEC Reports on Financial Activity, U.S. Senate and
House Campaigns, 1977-1978, 1979-1980, 1981-1982, 1983-1984, 1985-1986, 1987-1988, 1989-1990,
1991-1992, 1993-1994, and 1995-1996. Final Reports (except for 1978 and 1996: Interim Reports).
January 1982, October 1983, November 1985, March 1988, September 1989, October 1991, January 1994,
November 1995, and April 1997. [Data retrieved or calculated from these volumes and associated
computer tapes and press releases.]

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