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The average service tenure of Members of the Senate and House of Representatives has varied substantially since 1789. This report presents data on Member tenure over time, analyzes factors that affect average tenure in any given Congress, and examinesand a historical analysis of tenure trends.
During the 19th century, the average servicepatterns of congressional service, including the distribution of years served in each Congress, and the cross-chamber experience of Representatives and Senators.
During much of the 19th century, the average tenure of Representatives and Senators remained roughly constant, with little or no change over time; the average years of service was slightly higher for the first half of the century than during the second. During the late 19th and through the 20th century, the average years of service for Senators steadily increased, from an average of just under five years in the early 1880s to an average of just over 13 years in recent Congresses. Similarly, the average years of service of Representatives increased from just over four years in the first two Congresses of the 20th century to an average of approximately 10 years in the three most recent Congresses.
The average years of service for Members of the 115th Congress, as of January 3, 2017, when the Congress convened, was 9.4 years for the House and 10.1 years for the Senate. The average years of service for Members of the 114th Congress, as of January 6, 2015, when the Congress convened, was 8.8 years for the House and 9.7 years for the Senate. The average years of service for Members of the 113th Congress, as of January 3, 2013, when the Congress convened, was 9.1 years for the House and 10.2 years for the Senate.
The average years of service for Members of the 116th Congress, as of January 3, 2019, when the Congress convened, was 8.6 years for the House and 10.1 years for the Senate. In comparison, the average years of service for Members of the 115th Congress, as of January 3, 2017, when the Congress convened, was 9.4 years for the House and 10.1 years for the Senate. Two underlying factors appear torelatively steady, with incoming Representatives generally averaging between two and three years of prior service in most Congresses, and the Senators averaging between three and five years. Beginning in the late 19th and through much of the 20th century, average tenure for Members in both chambers steadily increased. Senators' average years of prior service has increased from just under five years during the early 1880s to approximately 10 years in the most recent Congress. Similarly, the average tenure of Representatives has increased from approximately three years during the early 1880s to approximately nine years in the most recent Congress.
seek election to the next Congress. In addition, short-term variation in average service is affected by the individual service tenures of Members who do not return for the following Congress.
do seek reelection. Observed increases in the proportion of Members seeking re-electionreelection and decreases in the proportion of Members defeated for re-election conformreelection align with previous scholarly assessments of congressional history, which largely conclude that during the early history of Congress, turnover in membership was frequent and resignations were commonplace, and that during the 20th century, congressional careers lengthened as turnover decreased and Congress became more professionalized.
The report also examines two further issues related to Member tenure This report presents data on average Member tenure over time, analyzes several factors that affect tenure in any given Congress, and examines historical patterns of congressional service, including the distribution of years served within each Congress, and the cross-chamber experience of Representatives and Senators. During much of the 19th century, the average tenure of Representatives and Senators remained relatively steady, with incoming Representatives generally averaging between two and three years of prior service in most Congresses, and Senators averaging between three and five years. Beginning in the late 19th and through much of the 20th century, average tenure for Members in both chambers steadily increased. The average years of service for Members of the 116th Congress, as of January 3, 2019, when the Congress convened, was 8.6 years for the House and 10.1 years for the Senate.. First,, including the distribution of Member service that underlies the aggregate chamber averages is examinedover time, as well as Members' cross-chamber experience. Although the average service tenure of Members has increased, more than half since Congress's early years, a substantial portion of Representatives and Senators in recent Congresses have served eight years or less. Second, the report analyzes historical trends in the percentage of Members who have served in both chambers. While only a small and declining for six years or less in their respective chambers. With respect to cross-chamber experience, while a small proportion of Representatives have historicallyhistorically have had previous Senate experience, throughout history a sizeablea sizable percentage of Senators throughout congressional history have had previous House experience.
Introduction
percentage of Senators have previously served in the House.
For information on the number of freshmen elected to Congress, refer to CRS Report R41283, First-Term Members of the House of Representatives and Senate, 64th-114th Congresses, by [author name scrubbed] and [author name scrubbed]
This report will be updated at the beginning of each Congress.
This report presents data on Member tenure and a historical analysis of tenure trends. During the 19th century, the average service of Representatives and Senators remained roughly constant, with little or no change over time; the average years of service was slightly higher for the first half of the century than during the second. During the late 19th and through the 20th century, the average years of service for Senators and Representatives steadily increased.
Two underlying factors appear to influence variation over time in the average years of service for Members of Congresses: the decision of sitting Members whether or not to seek election to the next Congress, and the success rate of Members who seek election to the next Congress. In addition, short-term variation in average service is affected by the individual service tenures of Members who do not return for the following Congress.
The findings presented here conform with scholarly assessments of congressional history, which largely conclude that during the early history of Congress, turnover in membership was frequent and resignations were commonplace. Most lawmakers in the 18th and early 19th centuries can be characterized as "citizen legislators," holding full-time non-political employment and serving in Congress on a part-time basis for a short number of years. During the 20th century, congressional careers lengthened as turnover decreased and Congress became more professionalized.
The report also examines two further issues related to Member tenure:, including the distribution of Member service that underlies the aggregate chamber averages and historical trends in the percentage of Members who have served in both chambersover time, as well as Members' cross-chamber experience. Although the average service tenure of Members has increased, more than half since the late 19th century, a substantial portion of Representatives and nearly half of Senators in recent Congresses have served eightfor six years or less. While only a small and declining in their respective chambers. With respect to cross-chamber experience, while a small proportion of Representatives have historically had previous Senate experience, throughout history a sizeablea sizable percentage of Senators throughout congressional history have had previous House experience.
Methodology
Data
Data on the tenure of Members of Congress for the 1st through 115th Congresses are drawn from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress,1 which records each Member's service in the House and Senate from the 1st Congress through the present. Specifically, each Member listed in the Biographical Directory was recorded, along with the beginning and ending dates of the Congresses in which the directory indicates they served. To identify any instances where a Member did not serve for the entire duration of a particular Congress, individual Member biographies contained in the Biographical Directory were consulted, in addition to percentage of Senators have previously served in the House.
The data presented here come from three sources. For the 1st through 104th Congresses, data were drawn from the Roster of United States Congressional Officeholders and Biographical Characteristics of Members of the United States Congress, 1789-1996.1 Data for the 105th through 114th Congresses were compiled from the Congressional Directory.2 Data for new Members of the 115,2 as well as the Congressional Directory3 for evidence that a Member's service began after the opening day of a Congress, or ended prior to the last day of a Congress. Data for new Members of the 116th Congress come from the Clerk of the House and CQ Press's Guide to the New Congress.3 All three sources of data were combined into one dataset.4
Chamber service and total congressional service were recorded for each Member of each Congress, as of the first day of Congress. Freshmen Members in each house are counted as having no service (zero years), and changes in membership during a Congress were not taken into account. From these individual data, aggregate statistics were derived for each Congress.
Data on Member tenure as described above are aggregated to generate a series of summary statistics for each chamber from the 1st through 116th Congresses. Statistics are calculated as of the first day of the Congress. For example, the average tenure of Senators in the 115th Congress is generated by first identifying those Senators who served during the opening day of the Congress (January 3, 2017), obtaining each Senator's total years of prior service in the Chamber as of the opening day of the Congress, and computing the average for the chamber.5 Consequently, any changes in membership during the term arising from vacancies and replacements are not taken into account. In addition, the statistics reported on average tenure over time include prior service within the chamber, but do not include cross-chamber experience (i.e., years of Senators' House experience, or Representatives' Senate experience). Freshman Members in each chamber are considered to have zero years of prior chamber service.
1st through 116th CongressesThe database consists of a total of 48,872 cases. The average service of Representatives was highest in the 102nd, 110th, and 111th Congresses, where Members had an average of 10.3 years of House service, or just over five terms. The highest average service of Senators occurred in the 111th Congress, where Senators had an average of 13.4 years of service, slightly more than two terms. For both the House and Senate, the Congress with the least average years of 4 Each Member's service in a given Congress in years is calculated by dividing their total days served in that Congress by 365.25. As of the beginning date of each Congress, each Member's years of total prior service in each chamber is calculated.
service in the Senate (1.25 terms).
John Conyers, Jr. is the longest serving Representative, with 52 years of service at the beginning of the 115th Congress (2017-2019). As of the beginning of the 115th Congress, Representative Conyers also has the most cumulative congressional service. The longest serving Senator is Patrick Leahy, with 42 years of service in the Senate at the beginning of the 115th Congress.
For each Congress, the average years of service was calculated for each chamber, as of the first day of the Congress. Figure 1 graphically plots the data from the 1st to 115th Congress.
As shown in Figure 1, during the 19th century, the average service of Representatives remained roughly constant, with only 12 Congresses having an average service greater than 3.0 years and just one Congress having an average service less than 1.5 years.5 Additionally, there appears to be little or no change over time; the average years of service was slightly higher for the first half of the century than during the second. During the 20th century, the average years of service for Representatives steadily increased, from an average of just over four years in the first two Congresses of the century to an average of approximately 10 years in the three most recent Congresses. The average years of service peaked at 10.3 years of service in the 102nd Congress (1991-1992), and was also 10.3 years of service in the 110th and 111th Congresses (2007-2008 and 2009-2010). At the start of the 115th Congress, the average years of service for Representatives was 9.4 years.
Among Members serving in the 116th Congress, Don Young is the longest-serving Representative, with approximately 46 years of service in the House as of the beginning of the Congress. Historically, the average years of service among Senators has been similar to that of Representatives, with little variation during the first 100 years after the founding, followed by a steady increase over the next 100 years. As shown in Figure 1, during the first 30 years of the nation, the average service of Senators tracked closely to the average service of Representatives. After an increase during three consecutive Congresses in the 1820s, the average service of Senators remained roughly constant, at approximately four years, for the next 60 years. Beginning in the 1880s, the average began to steadily rise (7th through 56th Congresses), the average service of Representatives remained relatively steady; during this time incoming Representatives averaged between 1.4 and 3.8 years of prior service.6 Around the turn of the 20th century, the average began to increase, rising from just over four years at the beginning of the century, to approximately nine years in each of the three most recent prior Congresses. At the start of the 116th Congress, the average years of prior service for Representatives was 8.6 years.
once again tracking the rise in average years of service among Representatives. The average years of service peaked at 13.4 years of service in the 111th Congress (2009-2010). At the start of the 115th Congress, the average years of service for Senators was 10.1 years.
Among Members serving in the 116th Congress, the longest-serving Senator is Patrick Leahy, with 44 years of service in the Senate as of the beginning of the 116th Congress.Two underlying factors appear to influence variation over time in the average years of service for Members of Congresses: the decision of sitting Members whether or not to seek election to the next Congress, and the success rate of Members who seek election to the next Congress.6At the start of the 116th Congress, incoming Senators averaged 10.1 years of prior Senate service.
The average years of prior service for Representatives and Senators is highly influenced by Member choices overabout whether or not to seek re-electionreelection to the chamber. If a large number of Members in one Congress choose not to seek reelection, many Members of the subsequent Congresschoose not to seek re-election, these choices will be reflected in the average years of service of Members of the following Congress, many of whom will necessarily be first-term Members with no prior service. Members might not seek re-electionreelection for any number of reasons; common historical reasons include seeking another office, appointment to other government positions, retirement from public service, and death.
Figure 2 plots the percentage of Representatives in each Congress who did not seek re-electionreelection to the following Congress.78
As shown in Figure 2, the rate of Representatives not seeking re-electionreelection dropped dramatically beginning in the mid-19th century. Prior to the Civil War1860s, it was common for 40% of Representatives or more to not seek re-election, and prior to 1887 no Congress saw fewer than 25% of Representatives not seek re-election. During the 20th and 21st centuriesnot to seek reelection, and prior to the 46th Congress (1879-1880) this figure never fell below 25%. After declining in the latter part of the 19th century, the rate at which Members have not sought re-election has remained roughly constant, at an average of 11%.
In addition to the rate at which Members seek re-electionreelection, a second important factor in understanding variation in the average years of serviceaverage seniority in Congress is the success rate among Members who do seek re-election.8reelection.9 Figure 3 plots the percentage of Representatives in each Congress who sought re-electionreelection to the next Congress but were defeated, either in their attempt to gain their party's nomination or in the general election for office.910
As shown in Figure 3, the percentage of Representatives defeated for re-election has fluctuated significantly throughout American history. As a general trend, the percentage defeated increased during the 19th century, remained constant for the first half of the 20th century, and then decreased during the second halfreelection generally increased during the 19th century, and later declined over the course of the 20th century. However, thereThere was significant short-term variation, which conforms to the presence of high-turnover elections throughout American history, such as the 1872, 1890, 1894, and 1932 elections resulting from high-turnover elections, including the 1872, 1890, 1894, and 1932 elections (to the 43rd, 52nd, 54th, and 72nd Congresses, respectively).
The data presented in Figure 2 and Figure 3 conform with previous align with scholarly assessments of congressional history, which largely conclude that during the early history of Congress, turnover in membership was frequent and resignations were commonplace, and that during the 20th century, congressional careers lengthened as turnover decreased and Congress became more professionalized.
MostMany lawmakers in the 18th and early 19th centuries canmight be characterized as "citizen legislators," holding full-time non-politicalnonpolitical employment and serving in Congress on a part-time basis for a short number of years. According to political scientist Randall Ripley, "In the pre-modern Congress, Members came and went rapidly. There were few senior Members. Life in Washington was not pleasant; Congress did not seem very important."10
According to H. Douglas Price, the lack of incentives for Members to retain their seats explains the high turnover in those early years of the House. Power was fluid in the House. The Speaker controlled committee appointments; there was frequent change in party control, and no seniority influence.11, changes in party control were common, and seniority in the chamber was not yet as valuable as it would later become.12
After the Civil War, circumstances changed and precipitated a rise of careerism in Congress.12 Subsequently, legislative13 Legislative careers became professionalized, and the concept of the "citizen legislator" became a thing of the past.1314 Some observers attribute this to institutional changes in the structure of congressional elections, such as the strengthening of the party system and the emergence of one-party states and districts following the Civil War.14 Similarly, contemporary scholars15 Others have identified redistricting practices as a potential factor in lengthening careers.15
Other scholars have pointed to institutional changes in congressional operations, such as the rise of the seniority system, the development of the committee system, and new advantages of incumbency that allowed Members to generate publicity, serve constituents, and receive support in organizing their offices and forming agendas that help them be effective legislators.1618 In addition, the development of transportation technology made travel between Washington and a Member's home district less burdensome, potentially increasing the attractiveness of a longer career.
Finally, the emergence of national problems raised a legislative career to a new level of importance; as. As the federal government took on new responsibilities, both after the Civil War and in the early 20th century, Members may have begun to view congressional office as relatively more desirable than state office, and this may have contributed to many Members' desire to remain in Congress.1719
Examining the aggregate average years of Member service in a given Congress reveals little about the underlying distribution of service among individual Members. Table 4 presents the service experience of Representatives in the 16th, 64th, 104th, and 115th Congresses,18 divided into four categories: first-term Representatives with no prior service in the chamber, returning Representatives with less than four terms of experience, Representatives with between four and eight terms of experience, and Representatives with more than eight terms of experience.
As shown in Table 4, in all four Congresses, more than half of the Representatives have four terms experience or less; conversely, although the proportion of Members with more than eight terms experience is greater in the more recent Congresses, such Members are a fraction of the total number of Representatives in each Congress.
Table 5 plots the equivalent data for the Senate.
For much of the early history of Congress, relatively few Senators served for more than 12 years; this group never exceeded 10% of the chamber until the 50th Congress (1887-1888). However, the percentage in this category grew during the next few Congresses, and despite some fluctuation, generally increased over much of the 20th and (to date) 21st centuries. The 103rd Congress (1993-1994) marks the high point for Senators serving more than 12 years; this group of Senators made up 47% of the chamber. As of the opening day of the 116th Congress, Members in this category make up 26% of the chamber.
1st through 116th Congresses | |
Notes: Opening year of each Congress is noted in parentheses.
1st through 116th Congresses Sources: CRS analysis of Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, ICPSR, and proprietary data. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, and Carroll McKibbin, Roster of United States Congressional Officeholders and Biographical Characteristics of Members of the United States Congress, 1789-1996: Merged Data [computer file] 10th ICPSR ed. (Ann Arbor: MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor], 1997). Notes: Opening year of each Congress is noted in parentheses.
1st through 116th Congresses |
As shown in Table 5, a high proportion of Senators have less than eight years' experience in each of the four Congresses. However, compared with Representatives, such Senators do not make up as large a proportion of the chamber; in each Congress, an equal or higher proportion of Senators than Representatives had served more than eight years. While this may reflect the somewhat longer average term of service for Senators (as shown in Figure 1), it may also reflect the longer constitutional term length of Senators.
A second question raised by the data is how often do Members of the House or Senate go on to serve in the other chamber? Figure 6 plots the percentage of Senators in each Congress who had previously served in the House of Representatives.
Notes: Opening year of each Congress is noted in parentheses.
Senators with Prior House ExperienceAs shown in Figure 6, throughout American history, a sizeablesizable proportion of Senators have arrived with prior service in the House, and the proportion has remained within a fairly constant range over time. After theCongress's initial formation of the legislature (when prior experience in one chamber was not possible), the proportion of Senators with House experience rose to 30%, and fluctuated between 20% and 45% for the entire 19th century and most of the 20th century. It does not appear that the change from state legislature to direct election of Senators under the 17th amendment (which became operative over the course of the 64th, 65th, and 66th Congresses (1915-1920)) had a significant impact on the rate of House service among Senators; there appears to be little difference in the rate of House service among Senators in the decades prior to and subsequent to its adoption.
In the 109th Congress (2005-2006), the proportion of Senators with House experience exceeded 50% for the first time. At the start of the 115th Congress (2017-2019), 50 of the 100 Senators (50%) had previously served in the House.
A related question is how much House experience do Senators have? Figure 7 plots the average period of House service among Senators, by Congress. The bottom line is the average amount of House service among all Senators who began a given Congress; the top line is the average amount of House service among Senators who previously served in the House.
As shown in Figure 7, among Senators with House service, the average amount of service has typically been between five and nine years. In the 115th Congress (2017-2019), the 50 Senators with House service had an average House service of 9.2 years, or just over four and one-half terms.
Although rare in the contemporary Congress, throughout history Members have served in the House of Representatives after serving in the Senate. Figure 8 plots the percentage of Representatives in each Congress who had previously served in the Senate.
As shown in Figure 8, prior to the 1840s, it was common for a handful of Representatives to have previously served in the Senate. Five Members of the 13th and 16th Houses (1813-1815 and 1819-1821, respectively) had formerly served in the Senate, and six Representatives in the 23rd Congress (1833-1835) were former Senators, most notably John Quincy Adams, who had also been President. During the 20th century, it became less common for Representatives to have Senate experience. The last Representative to have previously served in the Senate was Claude Pepper, who served in the Senate from 1936 until 1951, and in the House from 1963 until 1989.
Two additional observations accompany the analysis presented here. First, aggregate7, Senators with prior House experience typically averaged between five and nine years in the House prior to serving in the Senate. In the 116th Congress, the 49 Senators with prior House service spent an average of 9.3 years in the House—just over four-and-one-half terms—prior to serving in the Senate.
Concluding Observations
Aggregate statistics on Member service tenures tend to disguise the variety of congressional service records found among individual Members. Some Members have very short tenures of service and choose not to seek re-electionreelection; other Members have long tenures whichthat end after re-electionreelection defeat. At the aggregate level, average careers have become longer; in the case of any individual Representative or Senator, however, these aggregate statistics have little or no predictive ability.
Second, but a great deal of variation in the length of congressional careers still persists.
Additionally, the institutional and policy contexts that have shaped Member decisions to seek or not seek re-electionreelection, and succeed or fail when seeking re-electionreelection, are not static factors. Just as the institutional contexts of elections and congressional operations have developed since the 19th century, they continue to change in the contemporary Congress. To the degree that patterns of congressional service in part reflect the incentives provided to Members by these institutional factors, it is likely that the patterns of Member service tenure will also continue to change. Similarly, the continued development of the institutional environment suggests that there is no way to predict how the patterns of service tenure will change; just as seemingly stable 19th century patterns rapidly changed toward the end of the century, so could the service tenure patterns we observe today.
Author Contact Information
Former CRS Analyst Matthew E. Glassman originally authored this report. The listed author updated this report and is available to respond to inquiries on the subject from congressional clients. Footnotes1.
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See Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, at http://bioguide.congress.gov/biosearch/biosearch.asp (accessed December 17, 2018). |
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, and Carroll McKibbin. Roster of United States Congressional Officeholders and Biographical Characteristics of Members of the United States Congress, 1789-1996: Merged Data [computer file] 10th ICPSR ed. (Ann Arbor: MI: Inter-university for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor], 1997). |
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CQ Roll Call, Guide to the New Congress, 116th Congress, November 12, 2018. For a variety of reasons (including deaths, resignations, and contested elections, among others), less than a full complement of Representatives and Senators were sworn in on the first day of a new Congress on a number of occasions throughout history. Consequently, statistics contained in this report may be calculated based on less than the full membership of each chamber if any vacancies existed on the opening day of the Congress. | ||||||
3. |
CQ Roll Call, Guide to the New Congress, 115th Congress, November 9, 2016. |
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4. |
Each case represents a Member-Congress. For example, a Member who served for eight terms would have eight cases in the dataset, one for each Congress, with each case reflecting his service record as of the first day of that Congress. |
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5. |
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Senators are excluded from this analysis due to the difficulty in definitively assessing whether Senators sought |
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Note that the two variables |
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Senators are again excluded due to the difficulty in assessing Senate elections prior to the 17th amendment. |
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Randall B. Ripley, Congress: Process and Policy, 4th ed. (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1988), p. 50. See also H. Douglas Price, who wrote |
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Ibid., p. 16. |
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David Brady, Kara Buckley, and Douglas Rivers, "The Roots of Careerism in the House of Representatives," Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 24, no. 4 (November 1999), p. 490. |
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John R. Hibbing, "The Modern Congressional Career," The American Political Science Review, vol. 85 (June 1991), pp. 404-425; Howard Baker, "'Citizen Legislators' Would Be Better," Washington Post, July 8, 1983, p. 21; and Saul Pett, "Baker Seeks to Change Face of Congress," Los Angeles Times, August 21, 1983, pp. 2, 15. |
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Robert G. Brookshire and Dean F. Duncan, "Congressional Career Patterns and Party Systems," Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 1 (February 1983), pp. 65-78; Nelson Polsby, "The Institutionalization of the U.S. House of Representatives," The American Political Science Review, vol. 41, no. 1 (March 1968). |
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Seth C. Mckee, "The Effects of Redistricting on Voting Behavior in Incumbent U.S. House Elections, 1992-1994," Political Research Quarterly, vol. 61, no. 1 (March 2008), pp. 122-133; Jamie L. Carson, Erik J. Engstrom, and Jason M. Roberts, "Redistricting, Candidate Entry, and the Politics of Nineteenth-Century U.S. House Elections," American Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, no. 2 (April 2006), pp. 283-293. |
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18.
Jamie L. Carson and Jason M. Roberts, Ambition, Competition, and Electoral Reform: The Politics of Congressional Elections Across Time (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2013); Erik J. Engstrom and Samuel Kernell, Party Ballots, Reform, and the Transformation of America's Electoral System (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Scott A. MacKenzie, "Life Before Congress: Using Pre-Congressional Experience to Assess Competing Explanations for Political Professionalism," Journal of Politics, vol. 77, no. 2 (April 2015), pp. 505-518. |
On the seniority system, see Polsby, "The Institutionalization of the U.S. House Representatives"; Michael Abram and Joseph Cooper, "The Rise of Seniority in the House of Representatives," Polity, vol. 1, no. 1 (August 1968), pp. 52-85; on the development of the committee system, see Walter Kravitz, "Evolution of the Senate's Committee System," Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, vol. 411 (January 1974), pp. 27-38; George B. Galloway, "Development of the Committee System in the House," The American Historical Review, vol. 65, no. 1 (October 1959), pp. 17-30; on the development of Member resources, see Richard Fenno, Homestyle: House Members and Their Districts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978); Bruce Cain, John Ferejohn, and Morris Fiorina, The Personal Vote: Constituency Service and Electoral Independence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). |
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Samuel Kernell, "Toward Understanding 19th Century Congressional Careers: Ambition, Competition, and Rotation," American Journal of Political Science, vol. 21, no. 4 (November 1977), pp. 669-693; Joseph Schlesinger, Ambition and Politics: Political Careers in the United States (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966). |
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